Перевод: со всех языков на английский

с английского на все языки

I understood as I grew up

  • 1 grandir

    grandir [gʀɑ̃diʀ]
    ➭ TABLE 2
    1. intransitive verb
       a. to grow ; [bruit] to grow louder ; [firme] to expand
    • en grandissant tu verras que... as you grow up you'll see that...
    2. transitive verb
       a. [microscope] to magnify
    * * *
    gʀɑ̃diʀ
    1.
    verbe transitif [loupe] to magnify; [talons] to make [somebody] look taller

    2.
    verbe intransitif
    1) ( en taille) [plante, enfant] to grow; ( en âge) [enfant] to grow up

    grandir dans l'estime de quelqu'un — fig to go up in somebody's esteem

    2) ( en importance) [entreprise] to expand; [rumeur, foule] to grow

    aller grandissant — liter [inquiétude] to become greater and greater; [bruit] to become louder and louder


    3.
    se grandir verbe pronominal lit to make oneself (look) taller
    * * *
    ɡʀɑ̃diʀ
    1. vi
    1) [enfant, arbre] to grow

    Il a beaucoup grandi. — He's grown a lot.

    2) [bruit] to grow louder, [hostilité] to increase
    2. vt

    grandir qn [vêtement, chaussure] — to make sb look taller, figto make sb grow in stature

    * * *
    grandir verb table: finir
    A vtr
    1 ( rendre plus grand) [loupe] to magnify; [talons] to make [sb] look taller;
    2 ( exagérer) to exaggerate [danger, importance];
    3 ( ennoblir) sortir grandi d'une épreuve to come out of an ordeal with increased stature; sa promotion ne l'a pas grandi à mes yeux I don't think any more highly of him because he's been promoted.
    B vi
    1 ( en taille) [plante, enfant] to grow; ( en âge) [enfant] to grow up; grandir de 20 cms to grow 20 cms; je te trouve bien grandi haven't you grown; devenir raisonnable en grandissant to become sensible as one grows up; grandir dans l'estime de qn fig to go up ou rise in sb's esteem;
    2 (en nombre, importance, intensité) [société, entreprise] to expand; [rumeur, inquiétude, danger, réputation, foule] to grow; [obscurité] to increase; les jours grandissent the days are getting longer; aller grandissant liter [inquiétude] to become greater and greater; [bruit] to become louder and louder.
    C se grandir vpr lit to make oneself (look) taller.
    [grɑ̃dir] verbe intransitif
    1. [devenir grand] to grow
    je te trouve grandie you've grown ou you look taller since I last saw you
    2. [mûrir] to grow up
    3. [s'intensifier - bruit] to increase, to grow louder ; [ - influence] to increase
    4. [s'étendre - ville] to spread
    grandir en force/sagesse/beauté to get stronger/wiser/more beautiful, to grow in strength/wisdom/beauty
    ————————
    [grɑ̃dir] verbe transitif
    1. [faire paraître plus grand]
    2. [exagérer l'importance de] to exaggerate, to overstate
    3. [ennoblir]
    ————————
    se grandir verbe pronominal

    Dictionnaire Français-Anglais > grandir

  • 2 DREPA

    * * *
    (drep; drap, drápum; drepinn), v.
    I. with acc. or absol.;
    1) to stike, beat, knock;
    drepa e-n vendi, to strike one with a rod;
    hann tók hörpu sína ok drap strengi (struck the strings) til sláttar; drepa járn, to hammer iron;
    drepa or drepa högg á dyrr, to knock at the door;
    drepa botn úr keraldi, to knock the bottom out of a tub;
    at eigi drepir þú mik í dúp, that you knock me not into the deep;
    drepa í hel, í dauða, til heljar, to smite to death;
    2) to kill, slay (skulu vér nú fara at honum ok drepa hann);
    3) in a game of chess, to take a piece (þá drap jarl af honum riddara);
    drepa eld, to strike, fire (= drepa upp eld);
    drepa slóð, to make a trail (drápu kyrtlarnir döggslóðina);
    5) with prep., drepa af, to kill, slaughter (cattle);
    drepa niðr, to kill off (þótt hirðmenn þínir sé drepnir niðr sem svn);
    drepa sik ór dróma, to get rid of (throw off) a fetter;
    drepa til e-s, to strike, hit, at one;
    drepa e-t undir sik, to knock or drag down (skaltu standa hiá, er fjándi sá drepr mik undir sik);
    drepa upp eld = drepa eld;
    drepa e-t út, to divulge a thing;
    drepa yfir e-t, to hide, suppress;
    drap hann brátt yfir (he soon mastered) harm sinn;
    6) refl., drepast, to perish, die, esp. of cattle (fé hans drapst aldri af drephríðum);
    recipr. to put one another to death (þá diepast menn fyrir ágirni sakir);
    drepa menn fyrir, to kill one another’s men;
    7) impers., drepr honuin aldregi ský (acc.) í augu, his eyes never get clouded;
    ofrkappit (acc.) drepr fyrir þeim (their high spirits break down), þegar haminjan brestr; drap þó heldr í fyrir honum, he rather grew worse, his eyes grew weaker;
    nú drepr ór hljóð (acc.) fyrst ór konunginum, the king became silent at once;
    þá drap stall ór hjarta hans, his heart failed;
    ofan drap flaugina, the vane was knocked down;
    regn (acc.) drepr í gegnum et, the rain beats through (the thatch);
    II. with dat.;
    1) to put, thrust;
    hendi drap á kampa, he put his hand to his beard;
    drepa fœti (fótum) í eð, to strike (knock) one’s foot against, stumble over (drap fótunum í þrøskuldinn ok lá fallinn);
    drepa höfði, to droop (with) the head (Egill drap höfðin niðr í feld sinn);
    drepa fingri í munn sér, to put the finger into the mouth;
    drepa hendi til es, við em, to give one a slap with the hand;
    drepa hendi við e-u, to wave away with the hand to refuse a kind offer (drepa hendi við boðnu gulli);
    2) to tuck up the sleeves or skirts of a garment (hann hafði drepit upp skautunum);
    drepa hári undir belti sér, to tuck the hair under the belt (of a lady);
    3) to dip, immerse;
    drepa skeggi (the beard) í Breiðafjörð, to be drowned in B. drepa barni I vatn, to baptize a child;
    4) drepa orði, dómi á et, to talk, judge of;
    drepa huldu á et, to hide, keep secret;
    drepa e-u á dreif, see dreif; fig., drepa í egg e-u, to turn a deaf ear to;
    5) spoil (drepa gleði, teiti es);
    drepa kosti es, to destroy one’s happiness;
    impers. drap þá skjótt kosti, the cheer was soon gone;
    6) drepa niðr e-u, to suppress (drepa niðr konungs rétti, illu orði);
    drepa niðr sœmd es, to drag down one’s reputation, to disparage one;
    drepa niðr máli, to quash a lawsuit.
    * * *
    pret. drap, 2nd pers. drapt, mod. drapst, pl. drápu; pret. subj. dræpi; part. drepit; pres. drep; with the suff. neg. pret. drap-a. Orkn.: [A. S. drepan; Dan. dræbe; Swed. drapa; O. H. G. trefan; mod. Germ. treffen, whence the mod. Dan. treffe, in the sense to hit; Ulf. uses slahan and stautjan, but never dripan; in Engl. the word is lost.]
    A. WITH ACC., OR ABSOL. högg ( a blow) or the like being understood, to strike, beat:
    I. act. of music, to strike the chords, (cp. phrases such as, slá danz, to strike up for a dance; slagr is battle and poem, Trolla-slagr and Gýgjar-slagr are names of poems); hann tók hörpu sína ok drap strengi ( struck the strings) til slags, Stj. 458 (hence drápa, a song); d. e-n vendi, to strike with a rod, Skm. 26: to knock, d. á dyrr, or d. högg á dyrr, to knock at a door, Nj. 150; síðan gengu þau heim bæði ok drápu á dyrr, 153; drápu þar á dyrr, Sturl. iii. 154: metaph., d. á e-t, to touch slightly on a matter; d. botn ór keraldi, to knock the bottom out of a jar, Fms. xi. 34; d. járn, to beat iron (a blacksmith’s term) with a sledge-hammer, Grett. 129, cp. drep-sleggja.
    2. esp. with the sense of violence, to knock, strike; áfallit hafði drepit hann inn í bátinn, Bs. i. 422; at eigi drepir þú mik í djúp, that thou knockest me not into the deep, Post. 656 B. 9; herða klett drep ek þér hálsi af, Ls. 57.
    β. as a law term, to smite, strike; ef maðr drepr ( smites) mann, ok varðar þat skóggang, Grág. ii. 116; eigu menn eigi at standa fyrir þeim manni er drepit hefir annan, id.; ef maðr drepr mann svá at bein brotna, 14; nú vænisk sá maðr því er drap, at…, 15; þat er drep ef bein brotna, ok verðr sá úæll till dóms er drepit hefir, 16; nú vænisk hinn því, at hann hafi drepit hann, 19.
    γ. the phrases, d. e-n til heljar, Grág. ii. 161, or d. til dauðs, to smite to death; Josúa drap til dauða alla þjóð Anakim, Stj. 456; d. í hel, id., Hbl. 27; hence
    3. metaph. or ellipt. to kill, put to death, cp. Lat. caedere, Engl. smite; eigi er manni skylt at d. skógarmann, þótt…, Grág. ii. 162; skulu vér nú fara at honum ok d. hann, Nj. 205; þar varð illa með þeim því at Ásgrímr drap Gaut, 39; til þess at d. Grim, Eg. 114; tóku þeir af eignum jarla konungs en drápu suma, Fms. i. 6; er drepit hafði fóstra hans …, eigi hæfir at d. svá fríðan svein …, d. skyldi hvern mann er mann údæmðan vá, 80; konung drápum fyrstan, Am. 97; drap hann ( smote with the hammer) hina öldnu jötna systur, Þkv. 32; d. mátti Freyr hann með hendi sinni, Edda 23.
    β. in a game (of chess), to take a piece; þá drap jarl af honum riddara, Fms. iv. 366; taflsins er hann hafði drepit, vi. 29; Hvítserkr hélt töfl einni er hann hafði drepit, Fas. i. 285.
    γ. adding prepp. af, niðr, to slaughter, kill off; þótt hirðmenn þínir sé drepnir niðr sem svín, Fms. vii. 243: d. af, to slaughter (cattle); yxni fimm, ok d. af, Ísl. ii. 330; láttu mik d. af þenna lýð, Post. 656 B. 9.
    4. metaph. phrases; d. e-m skúta, to taunt, charge one with; áfelli þat er konungr drap oss skúta um, Fms. iv. 310; hjarta drepr stall, the heart knocks as it were against a block of stone from fear, Hkr. ii. 360, Orkn., Fbr. 36 (hence stall-dræpt hjarta, a ‘block-beating’ faint heart): d. upp eld, to strike fire, Fms. iv. 338: d. sik ór dróma, to throw off the fetter, Edda 19: d. e-t undir sik, to knock or drag down, skaltú standa hjá er fjandi sá drepr mik undir sik, Grett. 126, 101 A: d. slóð, to make a slot or sleuth (trail); d. kyrtlarnir slóðina, the cloaks trailed along the ground so as to leave a track, Gísl. 154: to trail or make a track of droves or deer, Lex. Poët.: d. e-t út, to divulge a thing (in a bad sense), Fms. vi. 208; d. yfir e-t, to hide, suppress, drap hann brátt yfir ( he soon mastered) harm sinn, Bs. i. 140 (hence yfir-drep, hypocrisy, i. e. cloaking).
    II. reflex., drepask, to perish, die, esp. of beasts; fé hans drapsk aldrei af megrð ok drephríðum, Eb. 150; drapsk allt hans fólk, Fms. v. 250.
    2. recipr. to put one another to death; þá drepask bræðr fyrir ágirni sakar, Edda 40; nú drepask menn (smite one another), eðr særask eðr vegask, Grág. ii. 92; ef menn d. um nætr, Fms. vii. 296; er sjálfir bárusk vápn á ok drápusk, viii. 53; en er bændr fundu at þeir drápusk sjálfir, 68; drepask niðr á leið fram, Ld. 238; drepask menn fyrir, to kill one another’s men, Fms. vii. 177; görðisk af því fjandskapr með þeim Steinólfi svá at þeir drápusk þar (menn?) fyrir, Gullþ. 14.
    III. impers., drepr honum aldregi ský (acc.) í augu, his eyes never get clouded, of the eagle flying in the face of the sun, Hom. 47; ofrkappit (acc.) drepr fyrir þeim ( their high spirits break down) þegar hamingjan brestr, Fms. vi. 155; drap þó heldr í fyrir honum, he rather grew worse, i. e. his eyes grew weaker, Bjarn. 59; nú drepr ór hljóð (acc.) fyrst ór konunginum, the king became silent at once, Fms. xi. 115; stall drepr ór hjarta e-s, Fbr. 36 (vide above, I. 4); ofan drap flaugina (acc.), the flaug was knocked down, Bs. 1. 422; regn drepr í gögnum e-t, the rain beats through the thatch or cover, Fagrsk. 123 (in a verse).
    β. in mod. usage, drepa is even used in the sense to drip (= drjupa), e. g. þak, hús drepr, the thatch, house lets water through.
    B. WITH DAT.:
    I. denoting gentle movement; in many cases the dat. seems to be only instrumental:
    1. of the limbs; hendi drap á kampa, be put his hand to his beard, Hom. 21; d. fæti (fótum), to stumble, prop. to strike with the foot, Nj. 112, Fas. ii. 558, Bs. i. 742, Hom. 110, Grett. 120; d. fæti í e-t, to stumble against, 103; d. fæti við e-t, id., Fas. ii. 558; d. höfði, to droop, nod with the head; drap í gras höfði, (the horse) drooped with the head, let it fall, Gkv. 2. 5; d. niðr höfði, id., Nj. 32; Egill sat svá opt, at hann drap höfðinu niðr í feld sinn (from sorrow), Eg. 322, O. H. L. 45 (for shame); d. fingri í munn sér, to put the finger into the mouth, Edda 74; fingri drap í munninn sinn (of a child), the words of a ditty; d. hendi til e-s, or við e-m, to give one a slap with the hand (inst. dat.), Nj. 27; hence metaph., d. hendi við e-u, to wave away with the hand, to refuse a kind offer, Bs. i. 636; d. hendi við boðnu gulli, Al. 75: the phrase, d. hendi við sóma sínum, cp. Al. 162.
    2. to tuck up the sleeves or skirts of a garment; d. skautum (upp), Fms. vii. 297; hann hafði drepit upp skautunum, Lv. 85; hann hafði drepit upp fyrir blöðunum undir beltið, Eb. 226: Sigurðr drap blöðunum undir belti sér, Orkn. 474; d. hári undir belti sér, to tuck the hair under the belt (of a lady), hárit tók ofan á bringuna ok drap hón (viz. því) undir belti sér, Nj. 24; hafði hár svá mikit, at hann drap undir belti sér, 272.
    II. to dip; d. skeggi í Breiðafjörð niðr, to dip the beard in the Breidafiord, i. e. to be drowned, Ld. 316; d. hendi, or fingri í vatn, to dip the hand, finger into water (vide above); d. barni í vatn, to dip a baby into water, i. e. to baptize, K. Þ. K. 10: the phrase, d. fleski í kál, to dip bacon into kale broth, Fas. iii. 381; nú taka þeir hafrstökur tvær, ok d. þeim í sýrukerin, Gísl. 7.
    β. the phrase, d. e-u, of wax, lime, butter, or the like, to daub, plaster, fill up with; þú skalt taka vax ok d. því í eyru förunauta þinna, Od. xii. 77; síðan drap eg því í eyru á öllum skipverjum, 177; vaxið er eg hafði drepið í eyru þeim, 200; d. smjöri í ílát, to fill a box with butter.
    γ. metaph. phrases; d. dul á e-t, to throw a veil over, Hkr. ii. 140, in mod. usage, draga dulur á e-t: the phrase, d. í skörðin (the tongue understood), to talk indistinctly, from loss of teeth; d. orði, dómi á e-t, to talk, reason, judge of a thing, Fms. ix. 500; d. huldu á, to hide, cloak, keep secret, xi. 106: d. e-u á dreif, prop. to ‘throw adrift,’ throw aside, i. e. think little of a thing, þessu var á dreif drepit, it was hushed up, Orkn. 248; áðr hafði mjök verit á dreif drepit um mál Bjarnar ( there had been much mystery about Björn), hvárt hann var lífs eðr eigi, sagði annarr þat logit, en annarr sagði satt, i. e. no one knew anything for certain, Bjarn. 20; en eigi varð vísan á dreif drepin ( the song was not thrown aside or kept secret) ok kom til eyrna Birni, 32; drápu öllu á dreif um þessa fyrirætlan, hushed it all up, Eg. 49: d. í egg e-u, prop. to bate the edge of a thing, to turn a deaf ear to, Orkn. 188, metaphor from blunting the edge of a weapon.
    δ. d. e-u niðr, to suppress a thing (unjustly); d. niðr konungs rétti, N. G. L. i. 7 5; d. niðr sæmd e-s, to pull down a person’s reputation, Boll. 346; d. niðr illu orði, to keep down a bad report, suppress it, Nj. 21; d. niðr máli, to quash a lawsuit, 33; drepit svá niðr herörinni, Fms. iv. 207.
    ε. d. glaumi, gleði, teiti e-s, to spoil one’s joy, Lex. Poët.; d. kosti e-s, to destroy one’s happiness, Am. 69: impers., drap þú brátt kosti, the cheer was soon gone, Rm. 98.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > DREPA

  • 3 MEGA

    (má, mátta, mátt), v.
    1) to be able to do, with acc.; eigi eru Asynjur úhelgari ok eigi megu þær minna, they are not less powerful; svá at vér mættim ekki, so that we could do nothing; m. betr, to be the stronger; m. við e-m, to be able to withstand one (hann mun ekki m. einn við mörgum); skulu mikit þín orð m. við mik, thy words shall have much weight with me;
    2) of health; m. vel, to be well; m. lítt, illa, to be poorly (hann spurpi, hversu hann mætti. — Eigi má ek nú vel, sagði hann); m. e-m, to do for one (má yðr þat, er yfir margan gengr);
    3) with infin., to be able; mátt þú sjá hana, ef þú vill, thou canst see her, if thou wilt; hann mátti ekki mæla, he could say nothing;
    4) to be permitted, allowed (hann mátti aldri tala til Kjartans, svá at Þorkell var hjá); nú man eigi m. sitjanda hlut í eiga, one must not remain sitting, be inactive;
    5) ellipt., the verb being understood (lemja man ek bogann, ef ek má); ferr þat sem má, go that as it may; má, at, it is possible that; þeir spurðu hversu þat mætti, how that could be.
    * * *
    pres. in a pret. form má, mátt, má; plur. megum, megut, megu, later and mod. megit, mega; pret. mátti; subj. pres. megi, pret. mætti; part. mátt; with suff. má’k = má ek, Og. 33; mætta’k = mætta ek, Þkv. 3; máttú = mátt-þú, passim: with neg. suff. pres. 1st pers. má’k-a, I cannot, Stor. 18; má’k-at ek, Am. 12; má’k-a’k, 52; má’kk-at-ek, Hallfred (Fs. 107): pret. mátti’g-a’k, I could not, Og. 32: [Ulf. magan = δύνασθαι; A. S. magan; Engl. may, might; Germ. mögen; Dan. maae.]
    B. To have strength to do, avail; svá at vér mættim ekki, so that we availed not, Am. 17; mega betr, to be the stronger, Karl. 423; allt má þó nauðigr skyldi, a saying, i. e. necessity is a great schoolmaster, Sturl. iii. 255; eigi megu þær minna, they are not less powerful, Edda 13; hverr er sá Guð, eða hvat má hann? 2: with dat., mega við e-m, to be able to withstand one; hann mun ekki mega einn við mörgum, Art. 22; ekki má við marginum, none can withstand the many, Fms. xi. 278; mega sér, var honum haldit til vinnu þegar er hann mátti sér nokkut, as soon as he grew strong, had any strength, Bs. i. 35; skulu mikit þín orð mega við mik, thy words shall go for much, Nj. 175; jafnmikit mega níu momentur ok tólf, Rb. 458.
    2. of health, like Lat. valere; mega vel, to be well; mega ílla, lítt, to be poorly, and so on; Komtú í Hitardal? segir Sturla—Já, sagði ferðamaðr—Hversu mátti Þorleifr?—Vel mátti hann, ok því var betr, at hann mátti vel, Sturl. i. 89; Hallr spurði, hversu þær mætti,—Harðla vel megum vit, Fms. ii. 201; hann var spurðr hversu hann mætti,—Má ek harða ílla, vi. 237; hann spyrr at Sigvalda, honum er sagt, at hann mátti lítið, xi. 102; hann spurði hversu hann mætti,—Eigi má ek nú vel, sagði hann, Bs. i. 182:—to do for one, má yðr þat er yfir margan gengr, it will do for one, what all others must bear, Eb. 168.
    II. followed by an infinitive, to be able; mátt þú sjá hana ef þú vill, thou canst see her if thou wilt, Nj. 3; þóttusk menn eigi mega leita hans, Eg. 230; at hann mætti fá sæmd sína, Fms. vi. 398; allt þat hann má miðla, Grág. i. 250; fé máttu þeir ekki bjarga, Nj. 267; hann mátti ekki mæla, Band. 14; sá einn hlutr var svá, at Njáli féll svá nær, at hann mátti aldri úklökvandi um tala, Nj. 171; þaðan sem þú mátt vel eta, 75; litlar sögur megu ganga frá hesti mínum, 90; fá mættim vér betr; landtöku, id.; í öllu er prýða má góðan höfðingja, Fms. x. 230; dyrr þær er ganga mátti upp í húsit, Eg. 421; svá at hann mátti kveða um morguninn, id.; má vera, it may be, Nj. 75: hvat megi! as adverb, hvat megi til vita! nema þér vilit bíða vár hér, may be ye will wait here for us, Band. 40 new Ed.; hvat megi vinna okkrum ástum? Konnak; and so in countless instances.
    2. to be permitted, allowed; hann mátti aldri tala til Kjartans svá at Þorkell væri hjá, Ld. 232; halda máttú þessu sæti þótt hón komi sjálf til, Nj. 6; graut má göra hvárt er sygnt er eða heilagt, N. G. L. i. 349; kynfylgju spell, svá at hann má eigi ( cannot) lag eiga við konu sína, þá megu þau ( then they may) skiljast, H. E. i. 248; nú man eigi mega sitjanda hlut í eiga, in that case one must not remain sitting, be inactive, a looker on, Nj. 110; hann kvað þat eigi mega (that would not do, not be lawful) er maðr var sekr orðinn, 117.
    3. ellipt., the verb göra or vera being understood; lemja man ek bogann, ef ek má (viz. göra þat), Fms. x. 362; þat má vel, sagði Özurr. I may as well do so, I will, Nj. 6, Barl. 2, 4, 25: ef svá má (viz. vera), if so be, Grág. i. 411: the saying, ungr má en gamall skal, the young may, the old must (die); nálgastú mik ef þú megir, if thou canst, Gm.; þeir spurðu, hversu þat mætti, Fms. ix. 239; ok má (it may be, perhaps), at hans menn fari á land, Fbr. 74 new Ed.; en þá, verðr eptir þat sem má, leave the rest to luck, Gullþ. 7; ferr þat sem má, fare that as it may, go that as it may, Nj. 38; en þat mætti (viz. vera) at vér vikim þá skammt inn at leginu, Fms. vii. 361; má ok, at sumir sé vinhollir nokkut, ix. 331; má, at hana hendi eigi slík úgipta í annat sinn, Nj. 23; má, at ek leiti þagat vináttu. Fms. vi. 399: the ellipt. mættim (hafa), ix. 239 (lines 17, 18), is a mere slip.
    III. part. megandi, availing, mighty, strong; athafnarlauss ok ekki megandi, listless and of no avail, Fms. iii. 154; fylldi hann þat heit, er hann var megandi maðr, as soon as he grew to be a man of might, Bs. i. 791; lítt megandi, ‘of little main,’ feeble, helpless, Vsp. 17; ú-megandi, poor, destitute; cp. ú-magi.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > MEGA

  • 4 DRAGA

    * * *
    I)
    (dreg; dró, drógum; dreginn), v.
    1) to draw, drag, pull;
    draga heim viðinn, to drag the logs home;
    draga árar, to pull the oars;
    absol., drógu þeir skjótt eptir, they soon pulled up to them;
    draga boga, to draw the bow;
    draga segl, to hoist sails (= draga upp segl);
    draga fisk, to catch, pull up fish with a line;
    draga kvernstein, to turn the millstone, to grind;
    2) to draw, inhale (draga úþefjan með nösum);
    draga nasir af e-u, to smell a thing;
    draga öndina, to breathe, live;
    3) to procure, earn, gain (þegar hann hafði fé dregit sem hann vildi);
    draga e-m e-t, to procure (or get) one a thing (eigi sögðust þeir vita, at hann drœgi Haraldi ríki);
    4) to employ as a measure (draga kvarða við viðmál);
    5) to prolong protract (dvalir þessar drógu tímann);
    6) to delay, put off, defer;
    vil ek þessi svör ekki láta draga fyrir mér lengi, I will not wait long for these answers;
    hann dró um þat engan hlut, he made no subterfuge;
    7) to delineate, draw a picture (var dregit á skjöldinn leo með gulli);
    í þann tíma sem hann dregr klæðaföllin (the folds);
    8) to trim or line garments (treyjan var dregin útan ok innan við rauða silki);
    with dat., hjálmr hans var dreginn leiri (overlaid with clay), er áðr var (dreginn) gulli;
    9) intrans to move, draw;
    drógu þeir þeim svá nær (came so near to them), at;
    10) with preps.:
    draga föt, skóklædi af e-m, to pull off one’s clothes, shoes;
    draga hring af hendi sér, to take off a ring from one’s hand;
    dró hann þá grunninu, he pulled them off the shallow;
    draga e-t af e-u, to draw, derive from a source;
    draga e-t af, to take off (Þ. hafði látit af draga brúna);
    draga e-t af við e-n, to keep back, withhold, from one;
    man héðan af eigi af dregit við oss, henceforth we shall no be neglected, stinted;
    Egill dró at sér skipit, E. pulled the ship close up to himself;
    draga vél at e-m, to draw wiles around one;
    draga spott, skaup, at e-u, to hold a thing up to ridicule;
    draga at lið, föng, to collect troops, stores;
    dró at honum sóttin, the illness drew closer to him, he grew worse;
    impers., dró at mætti hans, dró at um matt hans, his strength declined (fell off);
    til þess er dró at degi, till the day drew near;
    þá er dregr at jólum, when Yule drew near;
    dró at því (the time drew near). at hann væri banvænn;
    tók þá at draga fast at heyjum hans, his stock of hay was rapidly diminishing;
    svá dregr at mér af elli, svengd, þorsta, I am so overcome by old age, hunger, thirst;
    nú þykki mér sem fast dragi at þér, that thou art sinking fast;
    draga hring á hönd sér, to put a ring on one’s hand;
    draga (grun) á e-t, to suspect;
    draga á vetr, to rear through the winter (Hrafnkell dró á vetr kálf ok kið);
    impers., dregr á tunglit, the moon is obscured (= dregr myrkr á tunglit);
    dimmu þykkir draga á ráðit Odds, it looks as if a cloud was drawing over Odds’ affairs;
    dregr á gleði biskups, the bishop’s gladness was obscured;
    draga eptir e-m, to gain on one (Þórarinn sótti ákaft róðrinn ok hans menn, ok drógu skjótt eptir þeim Steinólfi ok Kjallaki);
    draga eptir e-m um e-t, to approach one, to be nearly equal to one, in a thing;
    um margar íþróttir (in many accomplishments) dró hann fast eptir Ólafi konungi;
    draga e-t fram, to produce, bring forward (draga fram athugasamlig dœmi); to further, promote (draga fram hlut e-s);
    draga fram kaupeyri sinn, to make money;
    draga fram skip, to launch a ship;
    impers., dregr frá, (cloud darkness) is drawn off;
    hratt stundum fyrir, en stundum dró frá, (clouds) drew sometimes over, sometimes off;
    dregr fyrir sól, tungl, the sun, moon is obscured by clouds or eclipse (tunglskin var ljóst, en stundum dró fyrir);
    ok er í tók at draga skúrirnar, when showers began to gather;
    draga e-ð saman, to collect, gather (draga lið, her, skip saman);
    impers., saman dró kaupmála með þeim, they struck a bargain;
    saman dró hugi þeirra, their hearts were drawn together;
    dregr þá saman or dregr saman með þeim, the distance between them grows less;
    draga e-t í sundr, to draw asunder, disjoin (vil ek eigi draga í sundr sættir yðrar);
    impers., dregr þá í sundr or dregr í sundr með þeim, the distance between them increases;
    draga e-n til e-s, to move, prompt, induce;
    engi ofkæti dregr mik til þessarar ferðar, it is not from wantonness that I undertake this journey;
    slíkt dregr hann til vinsældar, this furthers his popularity;
    ef hann drógi ekki til, if he was not concerned;
    draga e-t til dœmis um e-t, to adduce as a proof of;
    hann hét at draga allt til sætta (to do everything in his power for reconciliation) með þeim Skota konungi;
    impers., nema til verra dragi, unless matters turn out for the worse;
    with dat., þat samband þeirra, er þeim dregr báðum til bana, which will prove fatal to both of them;
    at hér mundi til mikillar úgiptu draga um kaup þessi, that much mischief would arise from this bargain;
    dró þá enn til sundrþykkju með þeim Svíum, the old feud with the Swedes began all over again;
    svá er þat, segir R., ef ekki dregr til, unless some unforesceen thing happens;
    draga e-t undan e-m, to seek to deprive one of a thing (þeir hafa bundizt í því at draga bœndr undan þér);
    draga e-t undan, to delay (drógu Skotar undan sættina);
    hví dregr þú undan at bjóða mér til þín? why dost thou put off inviting me to come?;
    draga rót undan (tölu), to extract the root;
    draga undan e-m, to escape from one (nú lægir seglin þeirra ok draga þeir undan oss);
    impers., hann (acc.) dró undan sem nauðuligast, he had a narrow escape;
    draga e-t undir sik, to apropriate or take fraudulently to oneself (hafði dregit undir sik finnskattinn);
    impers., dró yðr (acc.) undir hrakningina, en oss (acc.) undan, you came in for hard uasge but we escaped;
    draga upp skip, to drag a ship ashore;
    draga upp segl, to hoist a sail (sails);
    impers., þoku dregr upp, fog is coming on;
    11) refl., dragast.
    f. only in pl. ‘drögur’,
    2) metric term, repetition, anadiplosis (when a stanza begins with the last word of the preceding one).
    * * *
    pret. dró, pl. drógu; part. dreginn; pres. dreg: pret. subj. drægi: [Lat. trahere; Ulf. dragan, but only once or twice, = επισωρεύειν in 2 Tim. iv. 3; Hel. dragan = portare, ferre (freq.); A. S. dragan; Germ. tragen; the Engl. distinguishes between to drag and draw, whence the derived words to draggle, trail, drawl; Swed. draga; the Danes have drage, but nearly obliterated except in the special sense to travel,—otherwise they have trække, formed from the mod. Germ. tragen]:—to draw, drag, carry, pull.
    A. ACT., with acc.
    I. to drag, carry, pull; hann dró þau öll út, Nj. 131; djöfla þá er yðr munu d. til eilífra kvala, 273; d. heim við, to drag the logs home, 53; d. sauði, to pick sheep out of a fold, Bs. i. 646, Eb. 106; d. skip fram, to launch a ship; d. upp, to draw her up, drag her ashore, Grág. ii. 433; dró Þorgils eptir sér fiskinn, Fs. 129; Egill dró at sér skipit, E. pulled the ship close up to himself, Eg. 221, 306; dró hann þá af grunninu, Fms. vii. 264; hann hafði dregit ( pulled) hött síðan yfir hjálm, Eg. 375, cp. Ad. 3; d. föt, skóklæði af e-m, to draw off clothes, shoes; þá var dregin af ( stripped off) hosa líkinu, Fms. viii. 265; dró hann hana á hönd ser, he pulled it on his hand, Eg. 378; d. hring á hönd sér, to put a ring on one’s hand, 306; (hann) tók gullhring, ok dró ( pulled) á blóðrefilinn, id.: phrases, er við ramman reip at d., ’tis to pull a rope against the strong man, i. e. to cope with the mighty, Fms. ii. 107, Nj. 10,—the metaphor from a game; d. árar, to pull the oars, Fms. ii. 180, Grett. 125 A: absol. to pull, ok drógu skjótt eptir, they soon pulled up to them, Gullþ. 24, Krók. 52: metaph., um margar íþróttir dró hann fast eptir Ólafi, in many accomplishments he pressed hard upon Olave, Fms. iii. 17: d. boga, to draw the bow, x. 362, but more freq. benda ( bend) boga: d., or d. upp segl, to hoist the sails, Eg. 93, Fms. ix. 21, x. 349, Orkn. 260: d. fiska, or simply draga (Luke v. 7), to fish with a hook, to pull up fish with a line (hence fisk-dráttr, dráttr, fishing), Fms. iv. 89, Hým. 21, 23, Fs. 129, Landn. 36, Fas. ii. 31: d. drátt, Luke v. 4; d. net, to fish with a drag-net; also absol., draga á (on or in) á ( a river), to drag a river; hence the metaphor, d. langa nót at e-u, = Lat. longae ambages, Nj. 139: d. steina, to grind in a hand-mill, Sl. 58, Gs. 15: d. bust ór nefi e-m, vide bust: d. anda, to draw breath; d. öndina um barkann, id., (andar-dráttr, drawing breath); d. tönn, to draw a tooth.
    2. phrases mostly metaph.; d. seim, prop. to draw wire, metaph. to read or talk with a drawling tone; d. nasir af e-u, to smell a thing, Ísl. ii. 136; d. dám af e-u, to draw flavour from; draga dæmi af e-u, or d. e-t til dæmis, to draw an example from a thing, Stj. 13, cp. Nj. 65; d. þýðu eðr samræði til e-s, to draw towards, feel sympathy for, Sks. 358; d. grun á e-t, to suspect, Sturl.; d. spott, skaup, gys, etc. at e-u, to hold a thing up to ridicule, Bs. i. 647; d. á sik dul ok dramb, to assume the air of…, 655 xi. 3; d. á sik ofbeldi ok dramb, Fms. vii. 20; d. e-n á talar, to deceive one, metaphor from leading into a trap, 2 Cor. xii. 17; d. vél at e-m, to deceive one, draw a person into wiles, Nj. 280, Skv. i. 33; d. á vetr, to get one’s sheep and cattle through the winter; Hrafnkell dró á vetr kálf ok kið hin firstu misseri, Hrafn. 22, cp. Germ. anbinden, and in mod. Icel. usage setja á vetr; d. nafn af e-m, to draw, derive the name from, Eb. 126 (App.) new Ed.; the phrase, (hann skyldi ekki) fleiri ár yfir höfuð d., more years should not pass over his head, he must die, Þórð.
    II. to draw a picture; kross let hann d. í enni á öllum hjálmum með bleiku, Fms. iv. 96; þá dró Tjörvi líkneski þeirra á kamarsvegg, Landn. 247; var dregit á skjöldinn leo með gulli, Ld. 78, Pr. 428; í þann tíma sem hann dregr ( draws) klæða-föllin (the folds), Mar. (Fr.): d. til stafs (mod.), to draw the letters, of children first trying to write; d. fjöðr yfir e-t, a metaph. phrase, to draw a pen over or through, to hide, cloak a thing: gramm. to mark a vowel with a stroke,—a long vowel opp. to a short one is thus called ‘dreginn;’ hljóðstafir hafa tvenna grein, at þeir sé styttir ( short) eða dregnir (drawn, marked with a stroke), ok er því betr dregit yfir þann staf er seint skal at kveða, e. g. ári Ari, ér er-, mínu minni, Skálda 171: to measure, in the phrases, draga kvarða við vaðmál, Grág. i. 497, 498; draga lérept, N. G. L. i. 323.
    III. to line clothes, etc.; treyja var dregin utan ok innan við rauðu silki, Flov. 19.
    IV. metaph. to delay; dró hann svá sitt mál, at…, Sturl. iii. 13; hann dró um þat engan hlut, he made no subterfuge, Hkr. ii. 157; Halldórr dró þá heldr fyrir þeim, H. then delayed the time, Ld. 322; vil ek ekki lengr d. þetta fyrir þér, 284; vil ek þessi svör eigi láta d. fyrir mér lengr, Eb. 130.
    V. with prepp. af, at, á, fram, frá, saman, sundr, etc., answering to the Lat. attrahere, abstrahere, protrahere, detrahere, distrahere, contrahere, etc.; d. at lið, to collect troops; d. saman her, id., Eg. 172, 269, Nj. 127; d. at föng, to collect stores, 208, 259: metaph., þá dró at honum sóttin, the sickness drew nearer to him, he grew worse, Grett. 119; d. af e-m, to take off, to disparage a person, Fms. vi. 287; d. af við e-n, ok mun héðan af ekki af dregit við oss, we shall not be neglected, stinted, Bjarn. 54: mathem. term, to subtract, Rb. 118: d. fram, to bring forward, promote; d. fram þræla, Fms. x. 421, ix. 254, Eg. 354; skil ek þat, at þat man mína kosti hér fram d. (it will be my greatest help here), at þú átt ekki vald á mér; d. fram kaupeyri, to make money, Fms. vi. 8; d. saman, to draw together, collect, join, Bs. ii. 18, Nj. 65, 76; d. sundr, to draw asunder, disjoin; d. e-t á, to intimate, (á-dráttr) drag eigi á þat, Sturl. iii. 110; d. undan, to escape; kómu segli við ok drógu undan, Fms. iv. 201; nú lægir segl þeirra ok d. þeir nú undan oss, v. 11: metaph. to delay, Uspakr dró þó undan allt til nætr, Nj. 272; hirðin sá þetta at svá mjök var undan dregit, Fms. ix. 251 (undan-dráttr, delay); hví dregr þú undan at bjóða mér til þín, Glúm. 326, Fms. ix. 251, Pass. 16. 13: mathem., d. rót undan, to extract a root, Alg. 366; d. upp, to draw a picture (upp-dráttr, a drawing), to pull up, Edda I; to pull out of the snow, Eg. 546; d. út, to extract, draw out, 655 xxxii. 2; d. undir sik, to draw under oneself, to embezzle, Eg. 61, Fms. vii. 128; d. upp akkeri, to weigh anchor, Jb. 403; d. upp segl, to hoist sail, vide above; ljós brann í stofunni ok var dregit upp, Sturl. i. 142; þar brann ljós ok var dregit upp, en myrkt hit neðra, ii. 230; ok er mönnum var í sæti skipat vóru log upp dregin í stofunni, iii. 182; herbergis sveinarnir drógu upp skriðljósin, Fas. iii. 530, cp. Gísl. 29, 113,—in the old halls the lamps (torches) were hoisted up and down, in order to make the light fainter or stronger; d. e-n til e-s, to draw one towards a thing; mikit dregr mik til þess, Fs. 9; engi ofkæti dregr mik til þessarar ferðar, i. e. it is not by my own choice that I undertake this journey, Fms. ix. 352; slíkt dró hann til vinsældar, this furthered him in popularity, vii. 175, Sks. 443 B; mun hann slíkt til d., it will move, influence him, Nj. 210; ef hann drægi ekki til, if he was not concerned, 224.
    2. draga til is used absol. or ellipt., denoting the course of fate, and many of the following phrases are almost impers.; nema til verra dragi, unless matters turn out worse, Nj. 175; búð, dragi til þess sem vera vill, Lat. fata evenient, 185; ef honum vill þetta til dauða d., if this draw to his death, prove fatal to him, 103, Grett. 114; þat samband þeirra er þeim dregr báðum til bana, which will be fatal to both of them, Nj. 135; enda varð þat fram at koma sem til dró, Ísl. ii. 263; sagði Kveldúlfr at þá ( then) mundi þar til draga sem honum hafði fyrir boðat, Eg. 75; dró til vanda með þeim Rúti ok Unni, it was the old story over again, Nj. 12; dró til vanda um tal þeirra, 129; at hér mundi til mikillar úgiptu draga um kaup þessi, that mickle mischief would arise from this bargain, 30; dró þá enn til sundrþykkju með þeim Svíum, the old feud with the Swedes began over again, Fms. x. 161; ok er úvíst til hvers um dregr, Fs. 6; svá er þat, segir Runólfr, ef ekki dregr til, unless some unforeseen things happen, Nj. 75; hón kvað eigi úlíkligt at til mikils drægi um, Ísl. ii. 19; þá dró nú til hvárttveggja. Bret.; hence til-drög. n. pl. cause.
    B. IMPERS.
    1. of clouds, shade, darkness, to be drawn before a thing as a veil; dimmu (acc.) þykir á draga ráðit Odds, it looked as if gloom were drawing over Odd’s affairs, Band. 10; ok er í tók at draga skúrirnar (acc.), it began to draw into showers, i. e. clouds began to gather, Fms. iii. 206: often ellipt., hratt stundum fyrir en stundum dró frá, [ clouds] drew sometimes over, sometimes off, of the moon wading through them, Grett. 114; dregr fyrir sól, [ a veil] draws over the sun, he is hid in clouds; ský vónarleysu döpur drjúgum dró fyrir mína gleði-sól, Bb. 2. 9; dregr á gleði biskups, [ clouds] drew over the bishop’s gladness, it was eclipsed, Bs. ii. 79; eclipsis heitir er fyrir dregr sól eðr tungl, it is called an eclipse when [ a veil] draws over the sun or moon, 1812. 4; tunglskin var ljóst, en stundum dró fyrir, the moonshine was clear, and in turn [ a veil] drew over it, Nj. 118; þá sá lítið af tungli ljóst ok dró ymist til eðr frá, Ísl. ii. 463; þat gerðisk, at á dregr tunglit, ok verðr eclipsis, Al. 54.
    2. in various connections; dró yðr (acc.) undir hrakningina, en oss (acc.) undan, you were drawn into a thrashing (i. e. got one), but we escaped, Nj. 141; hann (acc.) dró undan sem nauðuligast, he had a narrow escape, Fms. ix. 392: absol., a noun or personal pronoun in acc. being understood, lítt dró enn undan við þik, there was little power of drawing out of thy reach, i. e. thy blow did its work right well. Nj. 199, 155; hvárki dró sundr né saman með þeim, of two running a dead heat: metaph. phrases, mun annarsstaðar meira slóða (acc.) draga, there will be elsewhere a greater trial left, i. e. the consequences will be still worse elsewhere, 54; saman dró hugi þeirra, their hearts were drawn together, of a loving pair, Bárð. 271; saman dró kaupmála með þeim, they struck a bargain, literally the bargain was drawn tight, Nj. 49; hann hreinsar þat skjótt þóat nokkut im (acc.) hafi á oss dregit af samneyti ( although we have been a little infected by the contact with) annarlegs siðferðis, Fms. ii. 261; allt slafr (acc.) dró af Hafri, i. e. H. became quite mute, Grett. (in a verse): in a temp. sense, til þess er dró at degi, till the day drew nigh, Fms. x. 138; þá er dró at miðri nótt, Grett. 140; þá er dregr at Jólum, Yule drew nigh, Fbr. 138; dregr at hjaldri, the battle-hour draws nigh, Fms. vi. (in a verse); dró at því (the time drew nigh), at hann var banvænn, Eg. 126: of sickness, hunger, or the like, to sink, be overcome by, svá dregr at mér af elli, svengd ok þorsta, at…, Fms. iii. 96; nú þykki mér sem fast dragi at þér, thou art sinking fast, Fas. ii. 221; ok er lokið var kvæðinu dregr at Oddi fast, O. was sinking fast, 321: of other things, tók þá at d. fast at heyjum hans, his stock was very low, Fms. iii. 208; þoku dregr upp, a fog draws on, rises, 97 (in a verse), but ok taki sú poka (nom.) fyrir at d. norðrljósit, Sks. an (better þá þoku, acc.)
    C. REFLEX, to draw oneself, move; ef menn dragask til föruneytis þeirra ( join them) úbeðit, Grág. ii. 270; Sigvaldi dregsk út frá flotanum, S. draws away from the fleet, Fms. xi. 140; ofmjök dragask lendir menn fram, i. e. the barons drew far too forward, vii. 22; hyski drósk á flótta, they drew away to flight, Fms. vi. (in a verse); skeiðr drógusk at vígi, the ships drew on to battle, iii. 4 (in a verse); dragask undir = draga undir sik, to take a thing to oneself, Grág. ii. 150; dragask á hendr e-m, drógusk opt þeir menn á hendr honum er úskilamenn voru, Sturl. i. 136; dragask e-n á hendr, hann kvað þess enga ván, at hann drægisk þá á hendr, ii. 120; dragask aptr á leið, to remain behind, Rb. 108; dragask út, to recede, of the tide, 438; dragask saman, to draw back, draw together, be collected, Fms. i. 25, Bs. i. 134; e-m dragask penningar, Fms. vi. 9; d. undan, to be delayed, x. 251; the phrase, herr, lið dregsk e-m, the troops draw together, of a levy, i. 94, vii. 176, Eg. 277; dragask á legg, to grow up, Hkr. iii. 108; sem aldr hans ok vitsmunir drógusk fram, increased, Fms. vi. 7; þegar honum drósk aldr, when he grew up, Fs. 9; dragask á legg, to grow into a man; dragask við e-t, to become discouraged, Fms. viii. 65; d. vel, illa, to do well, ill, Fs. 146: to be worn out, exhausted, drósk þá liðit mjök af kulda, Sturl. iii. 20; drósk hestr hans, ii. 75: part. dreginn, drawn, pinched, starved, hestar mjök dregnir, Fms. ix. 276; görðisk fénaðr dreginn mjök, drawn, thin, iii. 208; stóð þar í heykleggi einn ok dregit at öllu megin, a tapering hayrick, Háv. 53: of sickness, Herra Andrés lagðisk sjúkr, ok er hann var dreginn mjök, Fms. ix. 276.
    β. recipr., þau drógusk um einn gullhring, they fought, pulled. Fas. iii. 387. From the reflex. probably originates, by dropping the reflex. suffix, the mod. Swed. and Dan. at draga = to go, esp. of troops or a body of men; in old writers the active form hardly ever occurs in this sense (the reading drógu in the verse Fms. iii. 4 is no doubt false); and in mod. usage it is equally unknown in Icel., except maybe in allit. phrases as, e. g. út á djúpið hann Oddr dró, Snot 229 new Ed.; to Icel. ears draga in this sense sounds strange; even the reflex. form is seldom used in a dignified sense; vide the references above.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > DRAGA

  • 5 GÖRA

    ð, also spelt görva, giörva, geyra, giora, gera: prop. gøra, not gra (the ø was sounded nearly as y or ey), so that the g is to be sounded as an aspirate, however the word is spelt; and the insertion of i or j (giöra, gjöra), which is usual in mod. writing, and often occurs in old, is phonetic, not radical, and göra and gjöra represent the same sound. The word in the oldest form had a characteristic v, and is spelt so on the Runic stones in the frequent Runic phrase, gaurva kubl, Baut., and Danske Runemind. passim; but also now and then in old Icel. MSS., e. g. the Kb. of Sæm. (cited from Bugge’s Edit.), gorva, Am. 75, Skv. 1. 34, 3. 20, Hm. 123, Og. 29; gerva, Am. 64, Bkv. 3; giorva, Rm. 9; giorfa, 28; gorvir, Hkv. Hjörv. 41; gørvom, Hým. 6; gorviz, Am. 35; gerviz, Merl. 2. 89:—this characteristic v has since been dropped, and it is usually spelt without it in MSS., gora, Hým. 1, Og. 23, Ls. 65; gera, Am. 85; gorir, Hm. 114: the pret. always drops the v, gorþi, Hym. 21; gorðo or gorþo, fecerunt, Hm. 142, Am. 9; gorðumz, Hðm. 28; gerþi, Am. 74; gerþit, 26:—with i inserted, Rm. 9, 22; giordu, 11; in the Mork. freq. giavra. The ö is still sounded in the east of Icel., whereas gera is the common form in speech, gjöra in writing:—the old pres. indic. used by the poets and in the laws is monosyllabic görr, with suffixed negative, görr-a, Hkr. i. (in a verse); mod. bisyllabic görir, which form is also the usual one in the Sagas:—the old part. pass. was görr or gerr, geyrr, Fms. ix. 498, x. 75, where the v was kept before a vowel, and is often spelt with f, gorvan, gorvir, and gorfan, gorfir: dat. so-goro or so-guru adverbially = sic facto: the mod. part. gjörðr, gerðr, görðr, as a regular part. of the 2nd weak conjugation, which form occurs in MSS. of the 15th century, e. g. Bs. i. 877, l. 21. [This is a Scandin. word; Dan. gjöre; Swed. göra; Old Engl. and Scot. gar, which is no doubt of Scandin. origin, the Saxon word being do, the Germ. thun, neither of which is used in the Scandin.; the word however is not unknown to the Teut., though used in a different sense; A. S. gervan and gearvjan = parare; O. H. G. karwan; Germ. gerben, garben, but esp. the adj. and adv. gar, vide above s. v. gör-.] To make, to do; the Icel. includes both these senses.
    A. To make:
    I. to build, work, make, etc.; göra himin ok jörð, 623. 36, Hom. 100; göra hús, to build a house, Fms. xi. 4, Rb. 384; göra kirkju, Bjarn. 39; göra skip, N. G. L. i. 198; göra langskip, Eg. 44; göra stólpa, Al. 116; göra tól (= smíða), Vsp. 7; göra (fingr)-gull, Bs. i. 877; göra haug, to build a cairn, Eg. 399; göra lokhvílu, Dropl. 27; göra dys, Ld. 152; göra kistu ( coffin), Eg. 127; göra naust, N. G. L. i. 198; göra jarðhús, Dropl. 34; göra veggi, Eg. 724: also, göra bók, to write a book, Íb. 1, Rb. 384; göra kviðling, to make a song, Nj. 50; göra bréf, to draw up a deed ( letter), Fms. ix. 22; göra nýmæli, to frame a law, Íb. 17.
    2. adding prep.; göra upp, to repair, rebuild, restore, Fb. ii. 370; göra upp Jórsala-borg, Ver. 43; göra upp skála, Ld. 298; göra upp leiði, to build up a grave.
    II. to make, prepare, get ready; göra veizlu, drykkju, brúðkaup, erfi, and poët. öl, öldr, to make a feast, brew bridal ale, Fs. 23, Fms. xi. 156, Dropl. 6, Am. 86; göra seið, blót, to perform a sacrifice, Ld. 152; göra bú, to set up a house, Grág. i. 185, Ld. 68; göra eld, to make a fire, Fs. 100, K. Þ. K. 88; göra rekkju, to make one’s bed, Eg. 236; göra upp hvílur, Sturl. ii. 124; göra graut, to make porridge, Eg. 196, N. G. L. i. 349; göra drykk, to make a drink, Fms. i. 8; göra kol, or göra til kola, to make charcoal, Ölk. 35.
    III. in somewhat metaph. phrases; göra ferð, to make a journey, Fms. x. 281; görði heiman för sína, he made a journey from home, Eg. 23; göra sinn veg, to make one’s way, travel, Mar.; göra uppreisn, to make an uprising, to rebel, Rb. 384, Fms. ix. 416; göra úfrið, to make war, 656 C. 15; göra sátt, göra frið, to make peace, Hom. 153, Bs. i. 24; göra féskipti, Nj. 118; göra tilskipan, to make an arrangement, Eg. 67; göra ráð sitt, to make up one’s mind, Nj. 267, Fms. ix. 21; göra hluti, to cast lots, Fms. x. 348.
    2. to make, give, pay, yield; göra tíund, to pay tithes, Hom. 180; hann skal göra Guði tíunda hlut verðsins, id.; göra ölmusu, to give alms, 64; göra ávöxt, to yield fruit, Greg. 48; gefa né göra ávöxt, Stj. 43; göra konungi skatt eða skyld, Fms. xi. 225.
    3. to contract; göra vináttu, félagskap, to contract friendship, Nj. 103, Eg. 29; göra skuld, to contract a debt, Grág. i. 126: göra ráð með e-m, to take counsel with, advise one, Eg. 12; göra ráð fyrir, to suppose, Nj. 103, Fms. ix. 10; göra mun e-s, to make a difference, i. 255, Eb. 106.
    4. to make, make up, Lat. efficere; sex tigir penninga göra eyri, sixty pence make an ounce, Grág. i. 500, Rb. 458.
    5. to grant, render; göra kost, to make a choice, to grant, Nj. 130, Dropl. 6, Fms. xi. 72, (usually ellipt., kostr being understood); vil ek at þér gerit kostinn, Nj. 3; ok megit þér fyrir því göra ( grant) honum kostinn, 49, 51; göra e-m lög, to grant the law to one, 237; göra guðsifjar, to make ‘gossip’ with one, to be one’s godfather, Fms. ii. 130.
    6. special usages; göra spott, háð, gabb, … at e-u, to make sport, gibes, etc. at or over a thing, Fms. x. 124; göra iðran, to do penance, Greg. 22; göra þakkir, to give thanks, Hom. 55; göra róm at máli e-s, to cheer another’s speech, shout hear, hear! var görr at máli hans mikill rómr ok góðr, his speech was much cheered, Nj. 250,—a parliamentary term; the Teutons cheered, the Romans applauded (with the hands), cp. Tacit. Germ.
    7. with prepp.; gera til, to make ready or dress meat; láta af ( to kill) ok göra til ( and dress), K. Þ. K. 80, Ísl. ii. 83, 331, Fs. 146, 149, Bjarn. 31, Finnb. 228; göra til nyt, to churn milk, K. Þ. K. 78; göra til sverð, to wash and clean the sword, Dropl. 19; máttu þeir eigi sjá, hversu Þorvaldr var til gerr, how Th. got a dressing, Nj. 19.
    β. göra at e-u, to mend, make good, put right (at-görð), ek skal at því gera, Fms. xi. 153, Eg. 566, Nj. 130: to heal, Bárð. 171, Eg. 579, Grág. i. 220; göra at hesti, K. Þ. K. 54, Nj. 74: göra við e-u, vide B. II.
    8. adding acc. of an adj., part., or the like; göra mun þat margan höfuðlausan, Nj. 203; göra mikit um sik, to make a great noise, great havoc, Fb. i. 545, Grett. 133, Fms. x. 329; göra e-n sáttan, to reconcile one, Grág. i. 336; göra sér e-n kæran, to make one dear to oneself, Hkr. i. 209; göra sik líkan e-m, to make oneself like to another, imitate one, Nj. 258; göra sik góðan, to make oneself good or useful, 74, 78; göra sik reiðan, to take offence, 216; göra sér dælt, to make oneself at home, take liberties, Ld. 134, Nj. 216; göra langmælt, to make a long speech, Sks. 316; göra skjót-kjörit, to make a quick choice, Fms. ii. 79; göra hólpinn, to ‘make holpen,’ to help, x. 314; göra lögtekit, to make a law, issue a law, xi. 213, Bs. i. 37; hann gerði hann hálshöggvinn, he had him beheaded, Fms. ix. 488, v. l.; ok görðu þá handtekna alla at minsta kosti, Sturl. i. 40; várir vöskustu ok beztu menn era görfir handteknir, 41.
    β. göra sér mikit um e-t, to make much of, admire, Eg. 5, Fms. x. 254, 364; göra e-t at ágætum, to make famous, extol a thing, vii. 147; göra at orðum, to notice as remarkable, Fas. i. 123; göra at álitum, to take into consideration, Nj. 3; göra sér úgetið at e-u, to be displeased with, Ld. 134; göra vart við sik, to make one’s presence noticed, Eg. 79; göra sér mikit, lítið fyrir, to make great, small efforts, Finnb. 234; göra sér í hug, to brood over; hann gerði sér í hug at drepa jarl, Fs. 112; göra sér í hugar lund, to fancy, think: göra af sér, to exert oneself, ef þú gerir eigi meira af þér um aðra leika, Edda 32; hvárt hann var með Eiríki jarli, eðr görði hann annat af sér, or what else he was making of himself, Fms. xi. 157.
    9. phrases, gera fáleika á sik, to feign, make oneself look sad, Nj. 14; esp. adding upp, gera sér upp veyki, to feign sickness, (upp-gerð, dissimulation); göra sér til, to make a fuss, (hence, til-gerð, foppishness.)
    B. To do:
    I. to do, act; allt þat er hann gerir síðan ( whatever he does), þat á eigandi at ábyrgjask, Gþl. 190; þér munut fátt mæla eðr gera, áðr yðr munu vandræði af standa, i. e. whatsoever you say or do will bring you into trouble, Nj. 91; göra e-t með harðfengi ok kappi, 98; ger svá vel, ‘do so well,’ be so kind! 111; gerit nú svá, góði herra (please, dear lord!), þiggit mitt heilræði, Fms. vii. 157: and in mod. usage, gerið þér svo vel, gerðu svo vel, = Engl. please, do! sagði, at hann hafði með trúleik gört, done faithfully, Eg. 65; göra gott, to do good; göra íllt, to do evil, (góð-görð, íll-görð); ok þat var vel gört, well done, 64; geyrða ek hotvetna íllt, I did evil in all things, Niðrst. 109; hefir hann marga hluti gört stór-vel til mín, he has done many things well towards me, I have received many great benefits at his hands, Eg. 60: with dat., svá mikit gott sem jarl hefir mér gert, Nj. 133; þér vilda ek sízt íllt göra, I would least do harm to thee, 84: göra fúlmennsku, to do a mean act, 185; göra vel við e-n, to do well to one, Fs. 22; göra stygð við e-n, to offend one, Fms. x. 98; göra sæmiliga til e-s, to do well to one, Ld. 62, Nj. 71; göra sóma e-s, to do honour to one, Fms. vii. 155; göra e-m gagn, to give help to one, Nj. 262; göra e-m sæmd, skomm, to do ( shew) honour, dishonour, to one, 5, Fms. x. 43; göra háðung, xi. 152; göra styrk, to strengthen one, ix. 343; göra e-m skapraun, to tease one; göra ósóma, Vápn. 19; göra skaða ( scathe), Eg. 426; göra óvina-fagnað, to give joy to one’s enemies, i. e. to do just what they want one to do, Nj. 112; göra til skaps e-m, to conform to one’s wishes, 80; gerum vér sem faðir vár vill, let us do as our father wishes, 198; vel má ek gera þat til skaps föður míns at brenna inni með honum, id.; göra at skapi e-s, id., 3; var þat mjök gert móti mínu skapi, Fms. viii. 300; gera til saka við e-n, to offend, sin against one, Nj. 80; gera á hluta e-s, to wrong one, Vígl. 25; göra ílla fyrir sér, to behave badly, Fms. vii. 103.
    II. adding prep.; göra til e-s, to deserve a thing (cp. til-görð, desert, behaviour); hvat hafðir þú til gört, what hast thou done to deserve it? Nj. 130; framarr en ek hefi til gört, more than I have deserved, Fms. viii. 300; ok hafit þér Danir heldr til annars gört, ye Danes have rather deserved the reverse, xi. 192, Hom. 159:—göra eptir, to do after, imitate, Nj. 90:—göra við e-u (cp. við-görð, amendment), to provide for, amend, ok mun úhægt vera at göra við forlögum þeirra, Ld. 190; er úhægt at göra við ( to resist) atkvæðum, Fs. 22; ok mun ekki mega við því gera, Nj. 198:—göra af við e-n (cp. af-görð, evil doing), to transgress against one, ek hefi engan hlut af gört við þik, Fms. vii. 104, viii. 241; ok iðrask nú þess er hann hefir af gert, 300; göra af við Guð, to sin against God, Hom. 44.
    2. special usages; göra … at, to do so and so; spurði, hvat hann vildi þá láta at gera, he asked what he would have done, Nj. 100; hann gerði þat eina at, er hann átti, he did only what be ought, 220; þeir Flosi sátu um at rengja, ok gátu ekki at gert, F. tried, and could do nothing, 115, 242; þér munut ekki fá at gert, fyrr en …, 139; Flosi ok hans menn fengu ekki at gert, 199; mikit hefir þú nú at gert, much hast thou now done ( it is a serious matter), 85; er nú ok mikit at gert um manndráp siðan, 256; hann vildi taka vöru at láni, ok göra mikit at, and do great things, Ld. 70; Svartr hafði höggit skóg ok gert mikit at, Nj. 53; slíkt gerir at er sölin etr, so it happens with those who eat seaweed, i. e. that (viz. thirst) comes of eating seaweed, Eg. 605.
    β. göra af e-u, to do so and so with a thing; hvat hafið ér gert af Gunnari, Njarð. 376; ráð þú draumana, vera má at vér gerim af nokkut, may be that we may make something out of it, Ld. 126; gör af drauminum slíkt er þér þykkir líkligast, do with the dream ( read it) as seems to thee likeliest, Ísl. ii. 196: göra við e-n, to do with one; þá var um rætt, hvað við þá skyldi göra, what was to be done with them? Eg. 232; ærnar eru sakir til við Egil, hvat sem eg læt göra við hann, 426; eigi veit ek hvat þeir hafa síðan við gört, 574: göra fyrir e-t, to provide; Jón var vel fjáreigandi, ok at öllu vel fyrir gört, a wealthy and well-to-do man, Sturl. iii. 195; þótt Björn sé vel vígr maðr, þá er þar fyrir gört, því at …, but that is made up, because …: fyrir göra (q. v.), to forfeit.
    C. METAPH. AND SPECIAL USAGES:
    I. to do, help, avail; nú skulum vér ganga allir á vald jarlsins, því at oss gerir eigi annat, nothing else will do for us, Nj. 267; þat mun ekki gera, that wont do, 84; en ek kann ekki ráð til at leggja ef þetta gerir ekki, Fms. ii. 326; konungr vill þat eigi, þvi at mér gerir þat eigi ( it will not do for me) at þér gangit hér upp, x. 357; þat gerir mér ekki, at þér gangit á Orminn, … en hitt má vera at mér komi at gagni, ii. 227; þóttisk þá vita, at honum mundi ekki gera ( it would do nothing) at biðja fyrir honum, Fb. i. 565; engum gerði við hann at keppa, 571; ekki gerði þeim um at brjótask, Bárð. 10 new Ed.; sagða ek yðr eigi, at ekki mundi gera at leita hans, Sks. 625; hvat gerir mér nú at spyrja, Stj. 518; ekki gerir at dylja, no use hiding it, Fbr. 101 new Ed.; ætla þat at fáir þori, enda geri engum, Band. 7; bæði var leitað til annarra ok heima, ok gerði ekki, but did no good, 4; hét hann þeim afarkostum, ok gerði þat ekki, but it did no good, Fms. ii. 143.
    II. to send, despatch, cp. the Engl. to ‘do’ a message; hann gerði þegar menn frá sér, Eg. 270; hann hafði gört menn sex á skóginn fyrir þá, 568; þá gerði Karl lið móti þeim, Fms. i. 108; jarl gerði Eirík at leita Ribbunga, ix. 314; hann gerði fram fyrir sik Álf á njósn, 488; hann gerði menn fyrir sér at segja konunginum kvámu sína, x. 10; hleypi-skúta var gör norðr til Þrándheims, vii. 206; jafnan gerði jarl til Ribbunga ok drap menn af þeim, ix. 312; vilja Ósvífrs-synir þegar gera til þeirra Kotkels, despatch them to slay K., Ld. 144; skulu vér nú göra í mót honum, ok láta hann engri njósn koma, 242:—göra eptir e-m, to send after one, Nero bað göra eptir postulunum ok leiða þangat, 656 C. 26; nú verðr eigi eptir gört at miðjum vetri, Grág. i. 421; frændr Bjarnar létu göra eptir (Germ. abholen) líki hans, Bjarn. 69; síðan gerðu þeir til klaustrs þess er jómfrúin var í, Fms. x. 102:—gera e-m orð, njósn, to do a message to one; hann gerði orð jörlum sínum, Eg. 270; ætluðu þeir at göra Önundi njósn um ferðir Egils, 386, 582; vóru þangat orð gör, word was sent thither, Hkr. ii. 228.
    III. with infin. as an auxiliary verb, only in poetry and old prose (laws); ef hón gerði koma, if she did come, Völ. 5; gerðit vatn vægja, Am. 25; gramr gørr-at sér hlífa, he does not spare himself, Hkr. i. (in a verse); gerðut vægjask, id., Fs. (in a verse); hann gerðisk at höggva, Jb. 41; görðir at segja, Bkv. 15; görðisk at deyja, Gkv. 1. 1: in prose, eigi gerir hugr minn hlægja við honum, Fas. i. 122; góðir menn göra skýra sitt mál með sannsögli, 677. 12; Aristodemus görði eigi enn at trúa, Post.: esp. in the laws, ef þeir göra eigi ganga í rúm sín, Grág. i. 8; ef goðinn gerr eigi segja, 32; ef hann gerr eigi í ganga, 33; ef þeir göra eigi hluta meðr sér, 63; ef dómendr göra eigi dæma, 67; ef dómendr göra eigi við at taka, id.; ef goðinn gerr eigi ( does not) nefna féráns-dóm, 94; nú göra þeir menn eigi úmaga færa, 86; ef þeir göra eigi nefna kvöðina af búanum, Kb. ii. 163; ef þeir göra eigi segja, hvárt …, Sb. ii. 52; nú gerr sá eigi til fara, Kb. ii. 96; göra eigi koma, 150; ef hann gerr eigi kjósa, § 113.
    IV. a law term, göra um, or gera only, to judge or arbitrate in a case; fékksk þat af, at tólf menn skyldu göra um málit, Nj. 111; villt þú göra um málit, 21; bjóða mun ek at göra um, ok lúka upp þegar görðinni, 77; mun sá mála-hluti várr beztr, at góðir menn geri um, 88; málin vóru lagið í gerð, skyldu gera um tólf menn, var þá gert um málin á þingi, var þat gert, at … (follows the verdict), 88; vil ek at þú sættisk skjótt ok látir góða menn gera um …, at hann geri um ok enir beztu menn af hvárra liði lögliga til nefndir, 188; Njáll kvaðsk eigi gera mundu nema á þingi, 105; þeir kváðusk þat halda mundu, er hann gerði, id.; skaltú gera sjálfr, 58; fyrr en gert var áðr um hitt málit, 120; ek vil bjóðask til at göra milli ykkar Þórðar um mál yðar, Bjarn. 55; Þorsteinn kvað þat þó mundi mál manna, at þeir hefði góða nefnd um sættir þótt hann görði, 56; nú er þegar slegit í sætt málinu með því móti, at Áskell skal göra um þeirra í milli, Rd. 248; er nú leitað um sættir milli þeirra, ok kom svá at þeir skulu göra um málin Þorgeirr goði frá Ljósa-vatni ok Arnórr ór Reykjahlíð, sú var görð þeirra at …, 288; svá kemr at Ljótr vill at Skapti görði af hans hendi, en Guðmundr vill sjálfr göra fyrir sína hönd, skyldi Skapti gerð upp segja, Valla L. 225; eigi hæfir þat, leitum heldr um sættir ok geri Þorgeirr um mál þessi, Lv. 12; var jafnt gört sár Þórðar ok sár Þórodds, Eb. 246; þær urðu mála-lyktir at Þórðr skyldi göra um …, 24; ok vóru þá görvar miklar fésektir, 128; var leitað um sættir, ok varð þat at sætt, at þeir Snorri ok Steindórr skyldi göra um, 212; þit erut gerfir héraðs-sekir sem íllræðis-menn, Fs. 58: göra görð, Sturl. i. 63, 105: adding the fine, to fix the amount, þat er gerð mín, at ek geri verð húss ok matar, I fix the amount of the value of the house and (stolen) stores, Nj. 80; gerði Njáll hundrað silfrs, N. put it at a hundred silver pieces, 58; margir mæltu, at mikit vaeri gert, that the amount was high, id.; slíkt fégjald sem gert var, 120; vilit ér nokkut héraðs-sektir göra eða utanferðir, 189; hann dæmdi þegar, ok görði hundrað silfrs, 6l; síðan bauð Bjarni Þorkatli sætt ok sjálfdæmi, görði Bjarni hundrað silfrs, Vápn. 31; ek göri á hönd Þóri hundrað silfrs, Lv. 55; ek göri á hönd þér hundrað silfrs, id.; vilit þér, at ek göra millum ykkar? síðan görði konungr konuna til handa Þórði ok öll fé hennar, Bjarn. 17; Rafn kvað hann mikit fé annat af sér hafa gört, at eigi þætti honum þat betra, Fs. 30; Gellir görði átta hundrað silfrs, Lv. 97; fyrir þat gerði Börkr hinn digri af honum eyjarnar, B. took the isles from him as a fine, Landn. 123: adding the case as object, Gunnarr gerði gerðina, G. gave judgment in the case, Nj. 80; fyrr en gert var áðr um hitt málit, till the other case was decided, 120; þá sætt er hann görði Haraldi jarli, that settlement which he made for earl Harold, Fms. viii. 300: Flosi var görr utan ok allir brennu-menn, F. was put out ( banished) and all the burners, Nj. 251: metaph., nema þau vili annat mál á gera, unless they choose to settle it otherwise, Grág. i. 336.
    2. in the phrase, göra sekð, to make a case of outlawry, Grág. i. 118; eigi um görir sekð manns ella, else the outlawry takes no effect; en hann um görir eigi ella sekðina, else he cannot condemn him, 119.
    3. to perform; eptir-gerðar þeirrar sem hverr nennti framast at gera eptir sinn náung, Fms. viii. 103; en þat grunaði konung, at hann mundi ætla at göra eptir sumar sættir, i. e. that he had some back door to escape by, Orkn. 58 (cp. Ó. H.); allt þat er þér gerit nú fyrir þeirra sálum, id.
    V. special usages, to make allowance for; gera fóðr til fjár, to make an arbitrary allowance for, Ísl. ii. 138; hence, to suppose, en ef ek skal göra til fyrir fram ( suggest) hvat er hón (the code) segir mér, þá segi ek svá, at …, Fms. ix. 331; gera sér í hug, Fs. 112; göra sér í hugar-lund, to fancy; göra e-m getsakir, to impute to one; gera orð á e-u, to report a thing; þat er ekki orð á því geranda, ‘tis not worth talking about; eigi þarf orð at göra hjá því (‘tis not to be denied), sjálfan stólkonunginn blindaði hann, Mork. 14 (cp. Fms. vi. 168, l. c.); gera sér létt, to take a thing lightly, Am. 70; göra sér far um, to take pains; göra sér í hug, hugar-lund, to suppose.
    D. IMPERS. it makes one so and so, one becomes; hann görði fölvan í andliti, he turned pale, Glúm. 342; leysti ísinn ok görði varmt vatnið, the water became warm, 623. 34; veðr görði hvast, a gale arose, Eg. 128; hríð mikla gerði at þeim, they were overtaken by a storm, 267; þá gerði ok á hríð (acc.) veðrs, 281; féll veðrit ok gerði logn (acc.), and became calm, 372; görði þá stórt á firðinum, the sea rose high, 600; til þess er veðr lægði ok ljóst gerði, and till it cleared up, 129; um nóttina gerði á æði-veðr ok útsynning, 195; görir á fyrir þeim hafvillur, they lost their course (of sailors), Finnb. 242; mér gerir svefnhöfugt, I grow sleepy, Nj. 264; þá görði vetr mikinn þar eptir hinn næsta, Rd. 248.
    E. REFLEX, to become, grow, arise, and the like; þá görðisk hlátr, then arose laughter, Nj. 15; görðisk bardagi, it came to a fight, 62, 108; sá atburðr görðisk, it came to pass, Fms. x. 279; þau tíðendi er þar höfðu görzt, Ld. 152; gerðisk með þeim félagskapr, they entered into fellowship, Eg. 29; gerðisk svá fallit kaup, Dipl. ii. 10; Sigurðr konungr gerðisk ( grew up to be) ofstopa-maðr …, görðisk mikill maðr ok sterkr, Fms. vii. 238; hann görðisk brátt ríkr maðr ok stjórnsamr, xi. 223; Unnr görðisk þá mjök elli-móð, U. became worn with age, Ld. 12; sár þat er at ben görðisk, a law term, a wound which amounted to a bleeding wound, Nj. passim:—to be made, to become, görask konungr, to become king, Eg. 12; ok görðisk skáld hans, and became his skáld, 13; görðisk konungs hirðmaðr, 27; görask hans eigin-kona, to become his wedded wife, Fms. i. 3; at hann skyldi görask hálf-konungr yfir Dana-veldi, 83; vill Hrútr görask mágr þinn, Nj. 3; hann gerðisk síðan óvarari, he became less cautious, Fms. x. 414.
    2. with the prep. svá, to happen, come to pass so and so; svá görðisk, at …, it so happened, that …, Nj. 167; görðisk svá til, at …, Fms. x. 391; þá görðisk svá til um síðir, at…, at last it came to pass. that …, 392; enda vissi hann eigi, at þingför mundi af görask, in case he knew not that it would entail a journey to parliament, Grág. i. 46: with at added, to increase, þá görðisk þat mjök at um jarl ( it grew even worse with the earl) at hann var úsiðugr um kvenna-far, görðisk þat svá mikit, at …, it grew to such a pitch, that …, Hkr. i. 245; hence the mod. phrase, e-ð á-görist, it increases, gains, advances, esp. of illness, bad habits, and the like, never in a good sense.
    3. impers. with dat., honum gerðisk ekki mjök vært, he felt restless, Ld. 152; næsta gerisk mér kynlegt, I feel uneasy, Finnb. 236.
    4. to behave, bear oneself; Páll görðisk hraustliga í nafni Jesu, Post. 656 C. 13.
    5. to set about doing, be about; fám vetrum síðan görðisk hann vestr til Íslands, Fms. x. 415; maðr kom at honum ok spurði, hvat hann gerðisk, what he was about, Ó. H. 244; görðisk jarl til Ribbunga, Fms. ix. 312, v. l.; tveir menn görðusk ferðar sinnar, two men set out for a journey, x. 279; görðusk menn ok eigi til þess at sitja yfir hlut hans, Eg. 512; at þessir menn hafa görzk til svá mikils stórræðis, Fms. xi. 261; eigi treystusk menn at görask til við hann, Bárð. 160.
    6. (mod.) to be; in such phrases as, eins og menn nú gerast, such as people now are; eins og flestir menn gerast.
    F. PART. PASS. görr, geyrr (Fms. ix. 498, x. 75), gjörr, gerr, as adj., compar. görvari, superl. görvastr; [A. S. gearu; gare, Chaucer, Percy’s Ballads; O. H. G. garwe; Germ. gar]:—skilled, accomplished; vaskligr, at sér görr, Ld. 134; vel at sér görr, Ísl. ii. 326, Gísl. 14; gerr at sér um allt, Nj. 51; hraustir ok vel at sér görvir, Eg. 86; at engi maðr hafi gervari at sér verit en Sigurðr, Mork. 221; allra manna snjallastr í máli ok görvastr at sér, Hkr. iii. 360: the phrase, leggja görva hönd á e-t, to set a skilled hand to work, to be an adept, a master in a thing; svá hagr, at hann lagði allt á görva hönd, Fas. i. 391, (á allt görva hönd, iii. 195.)
    2. ready made, at hand; in the saying, gott er til geyrs (i. e. görs, not geirs) at taka, ‘tis good to have a thing at hand, Hkm. 17; ganga til görs, to have it ready made for one, Ld. 96; gör gjöld, prompt punishment, Lex. Poët.:—with infin., gerr at bjóða, ready to offer, Gh. 17; gervir at eiskra, in wild spirits, Hom. 11; görvar at ríða, Vsp. 24: with gen. of the thing, gerr ílls hugar, prone to evil, Hým. 9; gerr galdrs, prone to sorcery, Þd. 3; skulut þess görvir, be ready for that! Am. 55.
    II. [cp. görvi, Engl. gear], done, dressed; svá görvir, so ‘geared,’ so trussed, Am. 40.
    III. adverb. phrases, so-gurt, at soguru, so done; verða menn þat þó so-gurt at hafa, i. e. there is no redress to be had, Hrafn. 9; hafi hann so-gurt, N. G. L. i. 35, Nj. 141; kvað eigi so-gort duga, 123, v. l.; at (með) so-guru, this done, quo facto, Skv. 1. 24, 40; freq. with a notion of being left undone, re infecta. Germ. unverrichteter sache, Eg. 155, Glúm. 332, Ó. H. 202; enda siti um so-gort, and now let it stand, Skálda 166; við so-gurt, id., 655 vii. 4; á so-gurt ofan, into the bargain, Bs. i. 178, Ölk. 36, Fas. i. 85.

    Íslensk-ensk orðabók > GÖRA

  • 6 кошки скребут на душе

    разг.
    lit. cats scratch at smb.'s soul; cf. smb. is sick at heart; smb. is heavy of heart (heavy-hearted); smb.'s heart feels like a lump of lead

    Он, разумеется, и не думал о Приклонских, а Маруся ждала и худела от ожидания... Кошки, не обыкновенные, а с длинными, жёлтыми когтями, скребли её за сердце. (А. Чехов, Цветы запоздалые) — Of course he never thought of the Priklonskies, but Marusya waited for him and grew thin from waiting.... Cats, not ordinary cats, but cats with long yellow claws scratched at her heart.

    Она хорошо знала, что Минаев балагурит, когда у него кошки скребут на сердце. (И. Эренбург, Девятый вал) — She was well aware that the more heavy-hearted Minayev was the more he joked.

    - Что-то я не заметил, чтоб ты так мучился, - говорю я. - Да что ты! Конечно, мучился! Это я только так, делал вид, будто мне всё нипочём, а у самого на душе кошки скребут! (Н. Носов, Витя Малеев в школе и дома) — 'I didn't notice you suffering so much,' I said. 'Oh, but I did! I just didn't show it. I pretended I didn't care, but my heart felt like a lump of lead all the time.'

    Она сказала, что не хитрит, что мы могли бы не ссориться, ведь не виделись три дня, она понимает, что на душе у меня кошки скребут, она всё понимает... (В. Аксёнов, Маленький Кит, лакировщик действительности) — She said that she wasn't being arch, that she didn't see why we should quarrel, that after all we hadn't seen each other for three days, that she understood that I was all balked up inside, that she understood everything...

    Русско-английский фразеологический словарь > кошки скребут на душе

  • 7 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 8 volver

    v.
    1 to turn round (dar la vuelta a).
    al volver la esquina when we turned the corner
    Ella volvió la tortilla She turned the tortilla.
    Volvió inservible el carro.. It rendered the car useless.
    2 to turn (cabeza, ojos).
    3 to go back, to return (ir de vuelta).
    yo allí no vuelvo I'm not going back there
    vuelve, no te vayas come back, don't go
    al volver pasé por el supermercado I stopped off at the supermarket on the o my way back
    aún no ha vuelto del trabajo she isn't back o hasn't got back from work yet
    volver en sí to come to, to regain consciousness
    Ellos volvieron ayer They returned yesterday.
    4 to come back to.
    Me volvieron los recuerdos Memories came back to me.
    5 to vomit.
    Ella volvió los tacos She vomited the tacos.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ MOVER], like link=mover mover (pp vuelto,-a)
    1 (dar vuelta a) to turn, turn over; (hacia abajo) to turn upside down; (de dentro afuera) to turn inside out; (lo de atrás hacia delante) to turn back to front
    2 (convertir) to turn, make, change
    3 (devolver) to give back; (a su lugar) to put back
    4 (torcer) to turn
    1 (regresar) to return; (ir) to go back; (venir) to come back
    2 (a un tema etc) to return, revert
    1 (regresar - ir) to go back; (- venir) to come back
    3 (convertirse) to turn, become
    \
    volver a alguien a la vida to revive somebody, bring somebody back to life
    volver a las andadas to fall back into one's old habits
    volver del revés to turn inside out
    volver en sí to regain consciousness, come round
    volver los ojos hacia to turn one's eyes towards
    volver sobre sus pasos to retrace one's steps
    volverle la espalda a alguien figurado to turn one's back on somebody
    volverse atrás figurado to go back on one's word, back out
    volverse en contra de alguien to turn against somebody
    * * *
    verb
    2) go back, come back
    4) cause, drive, make
    •
    - volverse
    * * *
    ( pp vuelto)
    1. VT
    1) (=dar la vuelta a) [+ cabeza] to turn; [+ colchón, tortilla, enfermo] to turn over; [+ jersey, calcetín] to turn inside out; [+ página] to turn, turn over

    • volver la espalda — to turn away

    • volver la esquina — to go round o turn the corner

    2) (=cambiar la orientación de) to turn

    • volver la vista atrás — to look back

    • volver los ojos al pasado — to look back

    • volver el pensamiento a Dios — to turn one's thoughts to God

    • volver la proa al viento — to turn the bow into the wind

    3) *
    (=devolver) [+ compra] to return; [+ comida] to bring up; [+ imagen] to reflect; [+ objeto lanzado] to send back, return; [+ visita] to return

    volver algo a su lugar — to return sth to its place, put sth back (in its place)

    volver la casa a su estado original — to return o restore the house to its original condition

    4) (=enrollar) [+ manga] to roll up
    5) [+ adj] to make

    el ácido lo vuelve azul — the acid turns it blue, the acid makes it go blue

    6) (Ling) to translate (a into)
    2. VI
    1) (=regresar) (a donde se está) to come back, return; (a donde se estaba) to go back, return (a to) ([de] from)

    volver victorioso — to come back victorious, return in triumph

    volviendo a lo que decía... — going back o returning to what I was saying...

    • volver atrás — to go back, turn back

    • volver a una costumbre — to revert to a habit

    2)

    • volver a hacer algo — to do sth again

    me he vuelto a equivocar — I've made a mistake again, I've made another mistake

    volvió a casarse — she remarried, she (got) married again

    3)

    • volver en sí — to come to, come round

    4) [camino] to turn (a to)
    3.
    See:
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) ( regresar - al lugar donde se está) to come back; (- a otro lugar) to go back

    ¿cómo vas a volver? — how are you getting back?

    volvió muy cambiada — she came back o returned a different person

    ¿cuándo piensas volver por aquí? — when do you think you'll be o come back this way?

    volver a algo — < a un lugar> to go back to something; <a una situación/actividad> to return to something

    volviendo a lo que decía... — to get o go back to what I was saying...

    volver de algo: ¿cuándo volviste de las vacaciones? when did you get back from your vacation?; ha vuelto de Roma she's back from Rome; volvió cansado del trabajo he was tired when he got home from work; volver atrás — ( literal) to go o turn back; ( al pasado) to turn back the clock

    2)
    a) ( repetirse) momento to return
    b) calma/paz to return
    3)
    2.
    volver v aux

    volver a + inf: volver a empezar to start again o (AmE) over; no volverá a ocurrir it won't happen again; no lo volví a ver I never saw him again; lo tuve que volver a llevar al taller — I had to take it back to the workshop

    3.
    volver vt
    a) <colchón/tortilla> to turn (over); < tierra> to turn o dig over; <calcetín/chaqueta> ( poner del revés) to turn... inside out; ( poner del derecho) to turn... the right way round; < cuello> to turn
    b) <cabeza/mirada>
    c) < esquina> to turn
    2) (convertir en, poner)

    me está volviendo loca — it's/he's/she's driving me mad

    3) (Méx)
    4.
    volverse v pron
    1) ( girar) to turn (around)

    no te vuelvas, que nos están siguiendo — don't look back, we're being followed

    volverse boca arriba/abajo — to turn over onto one's back/stomach

    volverse atrás — to back out

    2) (convertirse en, ponerse)

    se vuelve agrio — it turns o goes sour

    * * *
    = come back, render, return, switch back, turn back, turn over + page, turn over, get back, be back.
    Ex. He wondered whether to chase after Duff and order him to come back or wait and see him later, after she had regained her composure.
    Ex. So strongly was it felt by proponents of change that just such unconscious biases rendered libraries 'part of the problem, instead of the solution'.
    Ex. Returning to government agencies, some agencies are treated as subordinate to a government, whilst others are entered independently.
    Ex. A code at the bottom of the local document summary and full information screens allow switching back to the system catalog.
    Ex. It might be wise for you to turn back and re-read what was said in section 2.
    Ex. Turn over the page and you will find suggested analyses against which you can check your solution.
    Ex. Then he picked up about 2 cm. of type from the right-hand end of the uppermost line (i.e. the last word or two of the last line) with the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, read it, and dropped the pieces of type one by one into their proper boxes, turning over the old house.
    Ex. I have been off on vacation and just got back.
    Ex. Which means I'd give the whole shooting match just to be back where I was before I quit sleeping under the stars and come into the hen-coops.
    ----
    * acción de volver a contar algo = retelling.
    * aguas + volver a su cauce = dust + settle.
    * hacer que la gente se vuelva a mirar = make + heads turn.
    * hora de volver a casa = curfew.
    * la historia + volverse a repetir = history + come full circle.
    * las cosas + volver + a su punto de partida = the wheel + turn + full circle.
    * no volver = go + forever.
    * no volver hasta + Expresión Temporal = not be back for + Expresión Temporal.
    * no volver la vista atrás = never + look back.
    * que puede volver a cerrarse herméticamente = resealable.
    * volvemos siempre al principio = things swing full circle.
    * volver a = depart to, get back to, go back to, move back to, revert (to), go + full circle back to, circle back to, backtrack [back-track], recur to, roll back to, revert back to, head back to, slide back to, default to.
    * volver a abrir = be back in business.
    * volver a adoptar = resume.
    * volver a albergar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alfombrar = recarpet [re-carpet].
    * volver a Alguien loco = drive + Alguien + up a wall, drive + Alguien + to despair, drive + Alguien + mad, drive + Alguien + insane, drive + Alguien + crazy, drive + Alguien + nuts, drive + Alguien + potty.
    * volver a almacenar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alojar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alquilar = rehire [re-hire].
    * volver a analizar = reexamine [re-examine], reanalyse [reanalyze, -USA].
    * volver a aparecer = resurface.
    * volver a aprender = relearn.
    * volver a asegurar = reinsure.
    * volver a asentar = resettle.
    * volver a atar = re-tie.
    * volver a bautizar = re-baptise [re-baptize, -USA].
    * volver a caer (en) = relapse (into).
    * volver a calcular = recalculation.
    * volver a cargar = reload.
    * volver a casa = go + home again.
    * volver a casarse = remarry.
    * volver a clasificar = refolder.
    * volver a combinar = recombine [re-combine].
    * volver a comprimir = recompress.
    * volver a comprobar = check back.
    * volver a conectar = reconnect [re-connect].
    * volver a congelarse = re-freeze [refreeze].
    * volver a considerar = reconsider.
    * volver a consultar = revisit, check back.
    * volver a contar = recount, retell.
    * volver a contextualizar = recontextualise [recontextualize, USA].
    * volver a contratar = rehire [re-hire].
    * volver a convertir = reconvert.
    * volver a convocar = reconvene.
    * volver a copiar = recopy.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].
    * volver a dar forma = reshape [re-shape].
    * volver a descubrir = rediscover.
    * volver a despertar = reawaken [re-awaken].
    * volver a determinar = respecify.
    * volver a diseñar = redesign [re-design], repurpose [re-purpose].
    * volver a dotar = re-equip [reequip].
    * volver a ejecutar = rerun [re-run].
    * volver a empezar = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board, a fresh start, start over, go back to + square one, be back to square one.
    * volver a empezar de cero = be back to square one, go back to + square one.
    * volver a encuadernar = rebind [re-bind].
    * volver a enmoquetar = recarpeting.
    * volver a enseñar = retrain [re-train].
    * volver a entrar = come back in.
    * volver a enviar = resubmit [re-submit], reship, resend [re-send].
    * volver a equipar = re-equip [reequip].
    * volver a escribir = retype [re-type], rewrite [re-write].
    * volver a especificar = respecify.
    * volver a establecer equivalencias = remap.
    * volver a evaluar = reassess [re-assess], reevaluate [re-evaluate], reappraise.
    * volver a financiar = re-fund.
    * volver a formarse = reform.
    * volver a formatear = reformat [re-format].
    * volver a funcionar = be back in business.
    * volver a guardar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a hablar innecesariamente = belabour [belabor, -USA].
    * volver a hacer = redo [re-do], remake.
    * volver a hacer un examen = retake + an exam.
    * volver a hidratar = rehydrate.
    * volver a imprimir = reprint.
    * volver a incluir = reinstate.
    * volver a indizar = re-index [reindex].
    * volver a inscribir = reregister.
    * volver a insertar = reinsert.
    * volver a insertar en el ordenador = rekey [re-key].
    * volver a intentar = retry [re-try].
    * volver a interpretar = reinterpret [re-interpret].
    * volver a introducir = re-enter [reenter], reintroduce, reinsert.
    * volver a juzgar = retry [re-try].
    * volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.
    * volver a la normalidad = get back to + normal, return to + normalcy, get (back) into + the swings of things.
    * volver a la popularidad = return to + favour.
    * volver a la seguridad de = burrow back into.
    * volver a la vida normal = get (back) into + the swings of things.
    * volver a leer = reread [re-read].
    * volver a levantar el sistema = restart.
    * volver Algo a su estado anterior = put + Nombre + back on track.
    * volver Algo del revés = turn + Nombre + inside-out.
    * volver Algo en Otra Cosa = turn + Nombre + into.
    * volver al pasado = turn + the clock back.
    * volver al principio = come + full circle, bring + Pronombre + full-circle.
    * volver al punto de partida = come + full circle, bring + Pronombre + full-circle, go back to + square one, be back to square one.
    * volver al redil = return to + the fold.
    * volver a manejar = rehandle.
    * volver a mezclar = remix.
    * volver a montar = reassemble [re-assemble].
    * volver a mostrar = redisplay.
    * volver a nacer = have + a lucky escape, have + a narrow escape.
    * volver a nombrar = rename.
    * volver a ordenar = resort.
    * volver a oxidar = reoxidise [reoxidize, -USA].
    * volver a pedir = reorder [re-order].
    * volver a pintar = repaint [re-paint].
    * volver a planificar = reschedule.
    * volver a plantearse = reconceive of.
    * volver a ponerse al día = be back on track, be on track.
    * volver a por sus fueros = be back on track, be on track, bite back.
    * volver a preguntar = check back.
    * volver a presentar = resubmit [re-submit].
    * volver a prestar atención = refocus + attention.
    * volver a procesar = reprocess.
    * volver a programar = reschedule.
    * volver a promover un producto = rehyping.
    * volver a publicar = reissue [re-issue].
    * volver a recibir financiación = re-fund.
    * volver a representar = remap.
    * volver a reunir = reassemble [re-assemble].
    * volver a salir = come back out.
    * volver a salir a la superficie = resurface.
    * volver a ser condenado = reconviction.
    * volver a ser lo que era = be back on track, be on track.
    * volver a subvencionar = re-fund.
    * volver a su camino = get back on + track, get back on + Posesivo + path.
    * volver a tomar = regain, retake.
    * volver a traducir = remap.
    * volver a traer = restore.
    * volver atrás = turn + the clock back, go + backwards.
    * volver a tratar = revisit.
    * volver a unir = reunite [re-unite].
    * volver a untar grasa al cojinete = repack + bearing.
    * volver a usar = reuse [re-use].
    * volver a utilizar = recapture, reutilise [reutilize, -USA].
    * volver a vivir = relive.
    * volver corriendo = scurry back.
    * volver de nuevo = come back out.
    * volver el reloj atrás = turn + the clock back.
    * volver en + Expresión Temporal = be back in + Expresión Temporal.
    * volver en sí = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * volver hacia atrás = backtrack [back-track].
    * volver la casa al revés = turn + everything upside down.
    * volver la espalda = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.
    * volver la espalda a = turn + Posesivo + back on.
    * volver la página = turn over + page.
    * volver las tornas = turn + the tables (on).
    * volver la vista atrás = look back.
    * volverlo a hacer = go and do it again.
    * volver loco = drive + Alguien + (a)round the bend, piss + Nombre + off.
    * volver loco a Alguien = have + Nombre + jump through the hoops, push + Alguien + over the edge.
    * volver loco, exasperar, sacar de quicio, cabrear, encabronar, dar por culo, = piss + Nombre + off.
    * volver pronto = haste back.
    * volverse = become, turn into, swing around, turn (a)round.
    * volverse + Adjetivo = grow + Adjetivo.
    * volverse a reunir = reconvene.
    * volverse a unir a = rejoin.
    * volverse chalado = go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse chiflado = go + potty, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse ciego = become + blind.
    * volverse + Color = turn to + Color.
    * volverse cruel = become + vicious.
    * volverse en contra de = turn against.
    * volverse estúpido = go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse etéreo = etherealise [etherealize, -USA].
    * volverse frenético = go + berserk, go + postal, go + crazy, work up + a lather.
    * volverse ilegible = become + unreadable.
    * volverse líquido = turn to + liquid.
    * volverse loco = go + bananas, take + leave of + Posesivo + senses, go + mad, run + amok, lose + Posesivo + marbles, go + bonkers, go + berserk, go + postal, go + wild, go + crazy, go + nuts, go + potty, get + a buzz from, go out of + Posesivo + mind, throw + a wobbly, go off + the rails, throw + a wobbler, go + haywire, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse loco de alegría = thrill + Nombre + to bits, be chuffed to bits, be tickled pink.
    * volverse loco por = sweep + Nombre + off + Posesivo + feet, go + gaga (over).
    * volverse majareta = go + potty, go out of + Posesivo + mind, go off + the rails, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse marrón = turn + brown.
    * volverse obscuro = turn + dark.
    * volverse obsoleto = go out of + date, become + obsolete, go out of + fashion, obsolesce.
    * volverse obsoleto, pasar de moda, caducar = become + obsolete.
    * volverse oscuro = turn + dark.
    * volverse violento = turn + violent.
    * volver sobre = retrace.
    * volver sobre los pasos de Uno = double-back, retrace + Posesivo + steps, retrace + Posesivo + footsteps, go back on + Posesivo + steps.
    * volver tarde a casa = stay out + late.
    * * *
    1.
    verbo intransitivo
    1) ( regresar - al lugar donde se está) to come back; (- a otro lugar) to go back

    ¿cómo vas a volver? — how are you getting back?

    volvió muy cambiada — she came back o returned a different person

    ¿cuándo piensas volver por aquí? — when do you think you'll be o come back this way?

    volver a algo — < a un lugar> to go back to something; <a una situación/actividad> to return to something

    volviendo a lo que decía... — to get o go back to what I was saying...

    volver de algo: ¿cuándo volviste de las vacaciones? when did you get back from your vacation?; ha vuelto de Roma she's back from Rome; volvió cansado del trabajo he was tired when he got home from work; volver atrás — ( literal) to go o turn back; ( al pasado) to turn back the clock

    2)
    a) ( repetirse) momento to return
    b) calma/paz to return
    3)
    2.
    volver v aux

    volver a + inf: volver a empezar to start again o (AmE) over; no volverá a ocurrir it won't happen again; no lo volví a ver I never saw him again; lo tuve que volver a llevar al taller — I had to take it back to the workshop

    3.
    volver vt
    a) <colchón/tortilla> to turn (over); < tierra> to turn o dig over; <calcetín/chaqueta> ( poner del revés) to turn... inside out; ( poner del derecho) to turn... the right way round; < cuello> to turn
    b) <cabeza/mirada>
    c) < esquina> to turn
    2) (convertir en, poner)

    me está volviendo loca — it's/he's/she's driving me mad

    3) (Méx)
    4.
    volverse v pron
    1) ( girar) to turn (around)

    no te vuelvas, que nos están siguiendo — don't look back, we're being followed

    volverse boca arriba/abajo — to turn over onto one's back/stomach

    volverse atrás — to back out

    2) (convertirse en, ponerse)

    se vuelve agrio — it turns o goes sour

    * * *
    = come back, render, return, switch back, turn back, turn over + page, turn over, get back, be back.

    Ex: He wondered whether to chase after Duff and order him to come back or wait and see him later, after she had regained her composure.

    Ex: So strongly was it felt by proponents of change that just such unconscious biases rendered libraries 'part of the problem, instead of the solution'.
    Ex: Returning to government agencies, some agencies are treated as subordinate to a government, whilst others are entered independently.
    Ex: A code at the bottom of the local document summary and full information screens allow switching back to the system catalog.
    Ex: It might be wise for you to turn back and re-read what was said in section 2.
    Ex: Turn over the page and you will find suggested analyses against which you can check your solution.
    Ex: Then he picked up about 2 cm. of type from the right-hand end of the uppermost line (i.e. the last word or two of the last line) with the thumb and forefinger of his right hand, read it, and dropped the pieces of type one by one into their proper boxes, turning over the old house.
    Ex: I have been off on vacation and just got back.
    Ex: Which means I'd give the whole shooting match just to be back where I was before I quit sleeping under the stars and come into the hen-coops.
    * acción de volver a contar algo = retelling.
    * aguas + volver a su cauce = dust + settle.
    * hacer que la gente se vuelva a mirar = make + heads turn.
    * hora de volver a casa = curfew.
    * la historia + volverse a repetir = history + come full circle.
    * las cosas + volver + a su punto de partida = the wheel + turn + full circle.
    * no volver = go + forever.
    * no volver hasta + Expresión Temporal = not be back for + Expresión Temporal.
    * no volver la vista atrás = never + look back.
    * que puede volver a cerrarse herméticamente = resealable.
    * volvemos siempre al principio = things swing full circle.
    * volver a = depart to, get back to, go back to, move back to, revert (to), go + full circle back to, circle back to, backtrack [back-track], recur to, roll back to, revert back to, head back to, slide back to, default to.
    * volver a abrir = be back in business.
    * volver a adoptar = resume.
    * volver a albergar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alfombrar = recarpet [re-carpet].
    * volver a Alguien loco = drive + Alguien + up a wall, drive + Alguien + to despair, drive + Alguien + mad, drive + Alguien + insane, drive + Alguien + crazy, drive + Alguien + nuts, drive + Alguien + potty.
    * volver a almacenar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alojar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a alquilar = rehire [re-hire].
    * volver a analizar = reexamine [re-examine], reanalyse [reanalyze, -USA].
    * volver a aparecer = resurface.
    * volver a aprender = relearn.
    * volver a asegurar = reinsure.
    * volver a asentar = resettle.
    * volver a atar = re-tie.
    * volver a bautizar = re-baptise [re-baptize, -USA].
    * volver a caer (en) = relapse (into).
    * volver a calcular = recalculation.
    * volver a cargar = reload.
    * volver a casa = go + home again.
    * volver a casarse = remarry.
    * volver a clasificar = refolder.
    * volver a combinar = recombine [re-combine].
    * volver a comprimir = recompress.
    * volver a comprobar = check back.
    * volver a conectar = reconnect [re-connect].
    * volver a congelarse = re-freeze [refreeze].
    * volver a considerar = reconsider.
    * volver a consultar = revisit, check back.
    * volver a contar = recount, retell.
    * volver a contextualizar = recontextualise [recontextualize, USA].
    * volver a contratar = rehire [re-hire].
    * volver a convertir = reconvert.
    * volver a convocar = reconvene.
    * volver a copiar = recopy.
    * volver a crear = recreate [re-create].
    * volver a dar forma = reshape [re-shape].
    * volver a descubrir = rediscover.
    * volver a despertar = reawaken [re-awaken].
    * volver a determinar = respecify.
    * volver a diseñar = redesign [re-design], repurpose [re-purpose].
    * volver a dotar = re-equip [reequip].
    * volver a ejecutar = rerun [re-run].
    * volver a empezar = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board, a fresh start, start over, go back to + square one, be back to square one.
    * volver a empezar de cero = be back to square one, go back to + square one.
    * volver a encuadernar = rebind [re-bind].
    * volver a enmoquetar = recarpeting.
    * volver a enseñar = retrain [re-train].
    * volver a entrar = come back in.
    * volver a enviar = resubmit [re-submit], reship, resend [re-send].
    * volver a equipar = re-equip [reequip].
    * volver a escribir = retype [re-type], rewrite [re-write].
    * volver a especificar = respecify.
    * volver a establecer equivalencias = remap.
    * volver a evaluar = reassess [re-assess], reevaluate [re-evaluate], reappraise.
    * volver a financiar = re-fund.
    * volver a formarse = reform.
    * volver a formatear = reformat [re-format].
    * volver a funcionar = be back in business.
    * volver a guardar = rehouse [re-house].
    * volver a hablar innecesariamente = belabour [belabor, -USA].
    * volver a hacer = redo [re-do], remake.
    * volver a hacer un examen = retake + an exam.
    * volver a hidratar = rehydrate.
    * volver a imprimir = reprint.
    * volver a incluir = reinstate.
    * volver a indizar = re-index [reindex].
    * volver a inscribir = reregister.
    * volver a insertar = reinsert.
    * volver a insertar en el ordenador = rekey [re-key].
    * volver a intentar = retry [re-try].
    * volver a interpretar = reinterpret [re-interpret].
    * volver a introducir = re-enter [reenter], reintroduce, reinsert.
    * volver a juzgar = retry [re-try].
    * volver a la etapa de planificación = return to + the drawing boards, back to the drawing board.
    * volver a la normalidad = get back to + normal, return to + normalcy, get (back) into + the swings of things.
    * volver a la popularidad = return to + favour.
    * volver a la seguridad de = burrow back into.
    * volver a la vida normal = get (back) into + the swings of things.
    * volver a leer = reread [re-read].
    * volver a levantar el sistema = restart.
    * volver Algo a su estado anterior = put + Nombre + back on track.
    * volver Algo del revés = turn + Nombre + inside-out.
    * volver Algo en Otra Cosa = turn + Nombre + into.
    * volver al pasado = turn + the clock back.
    * volver al principio = come + full circle, bring + Pronombre + full-circle.
    * volver al punto de partida = come + full circle, bring + Pronombre + full-circle, go back to + square one, be back to square one.
    * volver al redil = return to + the fold.
    * volver a manejar = rehandle.
    * volver a mezclar = remix.
    * volver a montar = reassemble [re-assemble].
    * volver a mostrar = redisplay.
    * volver a nacer = have + a lucky escape, have + a narrow escape.
    * volver a nombrar = rename.
    * volver a ordenar = resort.
    * volver a oxidar = reoxidise [reoxidize, -USA].
    * volver a pedir = reorder [re-order].
    * volver a pintar = repaint [re-paint].
    * volver a planificar = reschedule.
    * volver a plantearse = reconceive of.
    * volver a ponerse al día = be back on track, be on track.
    * volver a por sus fueros = be back on track, be on track, bite back.
    * volver a preguntar = check back.
    * volver a presentar = resubmit [re-submit].
    * volver a prestar atención = refocus + attention.
    * volver a procesar = reprocess.
    * volver a programar = reschedule.
    * volver a promover un producto = rehyping.
    * volver a publicar = reissue [re-issue].
    * volver a recibir financiación = re-fund.
    * volver a representar = remap.
    * volver a reunir = reassemble [re-assemble].
    * volver a salir = come back out.
    * volver a salir a la superficie = resurface.
    * volver a ser condenado = reconviction.
    * volver a ser lo que era = be back on track, be on track.
    * volver a subvencionar = re-fund.
    * volver a su camino = get back on + track, get back on + Posesivo + path.
    * volver a tomar = regain, retake.
    * volver a traducir = remap.
    * volver a traer = restore.
    * volver atrás = turn + the clock back, go + backwards.
    * volver a tratar = revisit.
    * volver a unir = reunite [re-unite].
    * volver a untar grasa al cojinete = repack + bearing.
    * volver a usar = reuse [re-use].
    * volver a utilizar = recapture, reutilise [reutilize, -USA].
    * volver a vivir = relive.
    * volver corriendo = scurry back.
    * volver de nuevo = come back out.
    * volver el reloj atrás = turn + the clock back.
    * volver en + Expresión Temporal = be back in + Expresión Temporal.
    * volver en sí = regain + Posesivo + consciousness.
    * volver hacia atrás = backtrack [back-track].
    * volver la casa al revés = turn + everything upside down.
    * volver la espalda = give + Nombre + the cold shoulder, turn + a cold shoulder to, cold-shoulder.
    * volver la espalda a = turn + Posesivo + back on.
    * volver la página = turn over + page.
    * volver las tornas = turn + the tables (on).
    * volver la vista atrás = look back.
    * volverlo a hacer = go and do it again.
    * volver loco = drive + Alguien + (a)round the bend, piss + Nombre + off.
    * volver loco a Alguien = have + Nombre + jump through the hoops, push + Alguien + over the edge.
    * volver loco, exasperar, sacar de quicio, cabrear, encabronar, dar por culo, = piss + Nombre + off.
    * volver pronto = haste back.
    * volverse = become, turn into, swing around, turn (a)round.
    * volverse + Adjetivo = grow + Adjetivo.
    * volverse a reunir = reconvene.
    * volverse a unir a = rejoin.
    * volverse chalado = go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse chiflado = go + potty, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse ciego = become + blind.
    * volverse + Color = turn to + Color.
    * volverse cruel = become + vicious.
    * volverse en contra de = turn against.
    * volverse estúpido = go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse etéreo = etherealise [etherealize, -USA].
    * volverse frenético = go + berserk, go + postal, go + crazy, work up + a lather.
    * volverse ilegible = become + unreadable.
    * volverse líquido = turn to + liquid.
    * volverse loco = go + bananas, take + leave of + Posesivo + senses, go + mad, run + amok, lose + Posesivo + marbles, go + bonkers, go + berserk, go + postal, go + wild, go + crazy, go + nuts, go + potty, get + a buzz from, go out of + Posesivo + mind, throw + a wobbly, go off + the rails, throw + a wobbler, go + haywire, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse loco de alegría = thrill + Nombre + to bits, be chuffed to bits, be tickled pink.
    * volverse loco por = sweep + Nombre + off + Posesivo + feet, go + gaga (over).
    * volverse majareta = go + potty, go out of + Posesivo + mind, go off + the rails, go off + Posesivo + rocker.
    * volverse marrón = turn + brown.
    * volverse obscuro = turn + dark.
    * volverse obsoleto = go out of + date, become + obsolete, go out of + fashion, obsolesce.
    * volverse obsoleto, pasar de moda, caducar = become + obsolete.
    * volverse oscuro = turn + dark.
    * volverse violento = turn + violent.
    * volver sobre = retrace.
    * volver sobre los pasos de Uno = double-back, retrace + Posesivo + steps, retrace + Posesivo + footsteps, go back on + Posesivo + steps.
    * volver tarde a casa = stay out + late.

    * * *
    volver [ E11 ]
    vi
    A (regresar — al lugar donde se está) to come back; (— a otro lugar) to go back
    no sé a qué hora volveré I don't know what time I'll be back
    ¿no piensas volver allí algún día? don't you intend going back there some day?
    dos de los cazas no volvieron two of the fighters failed to return
    vete y no vuelvas más get out and don't ever come back
    volvió muy cambiada she came back o returned a different person
    ¿cuándo piensas volver por aquí? when do you think you'll be o get o come back this way?
    ha vuelto con su familia she's gone back to her family
    no sé cómo consiguió volver I don't know how he managed to get back
    volver A algo:
    nunca volvió a Alemania she never went back to o returned to Germany
    no había vuelto a su pueblo desde que era pequeño he hadn't been back to his home town since he was a child
    logró volver al campamento she managed to get back to the camp
    ¿cuándo vuelves al colegio? when do you go back to school?
    volver DE algo:
    ¿cuándo volviste de las vacaciones? when did you get back from your vacation?
    ¿sabes si ha vuelto de Roma? do you know if she's back from Rome?
    volvieron del lugar del accidente they returned o came back from the scene of the accident
    siempre vuelve cansado del trabajo he's always tired when he gets o comes home from work
    volver atrás (en un viaje) to go o turn back; (al pasado) to turn back the clock
    veo que no han entendido, volvamos atrás I can see you haven't understood, let's go back over it again
    vuelve y juega … ( Col fam); here we go again … ( colloq)
    B
    1 (a una situación, una actividad) volver A algo to return TO sth
    el país ha vuelto a la normalidad the country is back to o has returned to normal
    está pensando en volver al mundo del espectáculo she's thinking of returning to o making a comeback in show business
    2 (a un tema) volver A algo:
    volviendo a lo que hablábamos… to go back to what we were talking about…
    ya volvemos a lo de siempre so we're back to the same old problem
    siempre vuelve al mismo tema he always comes back to the same subject
    C
    1 (repetirse) «momento» to return
    aquellos días felices que no volverán those happy days that will never return
    2 «calma/paz» to return volver A algo:
    la paz ha vuelto a la zona peace has returned to the area, the area is peaceful again
    la normalidad ha vuelto a la fábrica the situation at the factory is back to normal
    D
    volver en sí to come to o round
    trataban de hacerlo volver en sí they were trying to bring him round
    E ( Méx) (vomitar) to be sick
    ■
    volver A + INF:
    no volverá a ocurrir it won't happen again
    no hemos vuelto a verlo we haven't seen him since
    no volvió a probar el alcohol she never drank alcohol again
    me volvió a llenar el vaso she refilled my glass
    lo tuve que volver a llevar al taller I had to take it back to the workshop
    ■ volver
    vt
    1 ‹colchón/tortilla/filete› to turn, turn over; ‹tierra› to turn o dig over
    2 ‹calcetín/chaqueta› to turn … inside out; ‹cuello› to turn
    vuelve la manga, que la tienes del revés pull the sleeve out, you've got it inside out
    3
    volver la página or hoja to turn the page, turn over
    4 ‹cabeza/ojos›
    volvió la cabeza para ver quién la seguía she turned her head o she looked around to see who was following her
    volvió los ojos/la mirada hacia mí he turned his eyes/his gaze toward(s) me
    volver la mirada hacia el pasado to look back to the past
    5 ‹esquina› to turn
    está ahí, nada más volver la esquina it's up there, just around the corner
    B (convertir en, poner) to make
    la ha vuelto muy egoísta it has made her very selfish
    la televisión los está volviendo tontos television is turning them into morons
    lo vuelve de otro color it turns it a different color
    C
    ( Méx): volver el estómago to be sick
    A (darse la vuelta, girar) to turn, turn around
    se volvió para ver quién la llamaba she turned (around) to see who was calling her
    se volvió hacia él she turned to face him
    no te vuelvas, que nos siguen don't look back, we're being followed
    se volvió de espaldas he turned his back on me/her/them
    volverse boca arriba/abajo to turn over onto one's back/stomach
    volverse atrás to back out
    volverse contra algn to turn against sb
    B
    (convertirse en, ponerse): últimamente se ha vuelto muy antipática she's become very unpleasant recently
    el partido se ha vuelto más radical the party has grown o become more radical
    su mirada se volvió triste his expression saddened o grew sad
    se está volviendo muy quisquillosa she's getting very fussy
    se vuelve agrio it turns o goes sour
    se volvió loca she went mad
    * * *

     

    volver ( conjugate volver) verbo intransitivo
    1 ( regresar — al lugar donde se está) to come back;
    (— a otro lugar) to go back;

    ¿cómo vas a volver? how are you getting back?;
    ha vuelto con su familia she's gone back to her family;
    volver a algo ‹ a un lugar› to go back to sth;

    ‹a una situación/actividad› to return to sth;

    quiere volver al mundo del espectáculo he wants to return to show business;
    volviendo a lo que decía … to get o go back to what I was saying …;
    ¿cuándo volviste de las vacaciones? when did you get back from your vacation?;
    ha vuelto de París she's back from Paris
    2 [calma/paz] to return;
    volver a algo to return to sth
    3
    ◊ volver en sí to come to o round

    volver v aux:
    ◊ volver a empezar to start again o (AmE) over;

    no volverá a ocurrir it won't happen again;
    lo tuve que volver a llevar al taller I had to take it back to the workshop
    verbo transitivo
    1 ( dar la vuelta)
    a) ‹colchón/tortilla› to turn (over);

    ‹ tierra› to turn o dig over;
    ‹calcetín/chaqueta› ( poner — del revés) to turn … inside out;
    (— del derecho) to turn … the right way round;
    ‹ cuello› to turn;

    b) ‹ cabeza› to turn;


    c) ‹ esquina› to turn

    2 (convertir en, poner):

    me está volviendo loca it's/he's/she's driving me mad
    3 (Méx)

    volverse verbo pronominal
    1 ( girar) to turn (around);

    no te vuelvas, que nos están siguiendo don't look back, we're being followed;
    se volvió de espaldas he turned his back on me (o her etc);
    volverse boca arriba/abajo to turn over onto one's back/stomach
    2 (convertirse en, ponerse):

    se vuelve agrio it turns o goes sour;
    se volvió loca she went mad
    volver
    I verbo intransitivo
    1 (retornar, regresar: hacia el hablante) to return, come back: volveremos mañana, we'll come back tomorrow
    (: a otro sitio) to return, go back: volvió a su casa, she went back to her home
    2 (: una acción, situación, etc) volveremos sobre ese asunto esta tarde, we'll come back to that subject this afternoon
    (expresando repetición) lo volvió a hacer, he did it again
    volver a empezar, to start again o US over
    II verbo transitivo
    1 (dar la vuelta: a una tortilla, etc) to turn over
    (a un calcetín, etc) to turn inside out
    (a la esquina, la página) to turn
    (la mirada, etc) to turn 2 volverle la espalda a alguien, to turn one's back on sb
    ♦ Locuciones: familiar figurado (superar un gran peligro) volver a nacer: sobrevivió al naufragio, ha vuelto a nacer, he survived the shipwreck miraculously
    volver en sí, to come round
    volver la vista atrás, (mirar al pasado) to look back
    volver a alguien loco: me está volviendo loco, she's driving me mad o crazy
    ' volver' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    ambages
    - andadas
    - carga
    - clara
    - claro
    - emocionante
    - enajenar
    - entenderse
    - escopetazo
    - espalda
    - estragos
    - garantizar
    - grupa
    - hervir
    - idea
    - imperiosa
    - imperioso
    - indisponer
    - loca
    - loco
    - mentalizarse
    - mico
    - normalizar
    - placer
    - recalentar
    - rellenar
    - repasar
    - repetir
    - resentirse
    - retroceder
    - soler
    - soñar
    - tornar
    - trastornar
    - venir
    - vista
    - arreglar
    - cuidar
    - empezar
    - endurecer
    - gana
    - hacer
    - poder
    - rehacer
    - tal
    - vuelto
    - vuelva
    English:
    again
    - ask back
    - before
    - call back
    - circle
    - clock
    - come back
    - come round
    - come to
    - despair
    - double back
    - drive
    - get back
    - go back
    - go back to
    - insane
    - lapse
    - live through
    - look round
    - mad
    - make
    - mind
    - move back
    - nuts
    - paint over
    - put back
    - rake up
    - re-enter
    - re-erect
    - reapply
    - reappoint
    - reassemble
    - reassess
    - reconvene
    - reimpose
    - rekindle
    - remarry
    - render
    - reoccupy
    - reopen
    - repeat
    - replace
    - replay
    - replenish
    - reread
    - rerun
    - reschedule
    - resit
    - restock
    - resume
    * * *
    ♦ vt
    1. [dar la vuelta a] to turn round;
    [lo de arriba abajo] to turn over; [lo de dentro fuera] to turn inside out;
    vuelve la tele hacia aquí, que la veamos turn the TV round this way so we can see it;
    ayúdame a volver el colchón help me turn the mattress over;
    volver la hoja o [m5] página to turn the page;
    al volver la esquina when we turned the corner
    2. [cabeza, ojos, mirada] to turn;
    vuelve la espalda turn your back to me
    3. [convertir en]
    eso lo volvió un delincuente that made him a criminal, that turned him into a criminal;
    la lejía volvió blanca la camisa the bleach turned the shirt white
    4. Méx
    volver el estómago to throw up
    ♦ vi
    1. [persona] [ir de vuelta] to go back, to return;
    [venir de vuelta] to come back, to return;
    yo allí/aquí no vuelvo I'm not going back there/coming back here;
    vuelve, no te vayas come back, don't go;
    ¿cuándo has vuelto? when did you get back?;
    al volver pasé por el supermercado I stopped off at the supermarket on the o my way back;
    no vuelvas tarde don't be late (back);
    ya he vuelto a casa I'm back home;
    volver atrás to go back;
    cuando vuelva del trabajo when I get back from work;
    aún no ha vuelto del trabajo she isn't back o hasn't got back from work yet;
    ha vuelto muy morena de la playa she's come back from the seaside with a nice tan
    2. [mal tiempo, alegría, tranquilidad] to return;
    cuando vuelva el verano when it's summer again;
    todo volvió a la normalidad everything went back o returned to normal;
    vuelve la minifalda miniskirts are back
    3. [reanudar]
    volver a la tarea to return to one's work;
    volver al trabajo/al colegio to go back to work/school;
    volviendo al tema que nos ocupa… to go back to the matter we are discussing…;
    vuelve a leerlo read it again;
    tras el verano volvió a dar clases en la universidad once the summer was over she started teaching at the university again;
    vuelve a dormirte go back to sleep;
    volver con alguien [reanudar relación] to go back to sb;
    volver a nacer to be reborn
    4.
    volver en sí to come to, to regain consciousness
    * * *
    <part vuelto>
    I v/t
    1 página, mirada etc turn (a to;
    hacia toward); tortilla, filete turn (over); vestido turn inside outXXX; boca abajo turn upside down
    2
    :
    volver loco drive crazy;
    el humo volvío negra la pared the smoke turned the wall black, the smoke made the wall go black
    II v/i
    1 return, go/come back;
    volver a casa go/come back home;
    ¿cuándo vuelven? when do they get back?;
    volver sobre algo return to sth, go back to sth;
    volver a la normalidad return to normality
    2
    :
    volver en sí come to, come around
    3
    :
    volver a hacer algo do sth again;
    volver a fumar start smoking again
    * * *
    volver {89} vi
    1) : to return, to come or go back
    volver a casa: to return home
    2) : to revert
    volver al tema: to get back to the subject
    3)
    volver a : to do again
    volvieron a llamar: they called again
    4)
    volver en sí : to come to, to regain consciousness
    volver vt
    1) : to turn, to turn over, to turn inside out
    2) : to return, to repay, to restore
    3) : to cause, to make
    la volvía loca: it was driving her crazy
    * * *
    volver vb
    1. (regresar) to come back [pt. came; pp. come] / to go back
    2. (repetir)... again
    ¿puedes volver a decirlo? can you say that again?
    3. (dar la vuelta a) to turn over / to turn

    Spanish-English dictionary > volver

  • 9 Foreign policy

       The guiding principle of Portuguese foreign policy since the founding of the monarchy in the 12th century has been the maintenance of Portugal's status first as an independent kingdom and, later, as a sovereign nation-state. For the first 800 years of its existence, Portuguese foreign policy and diplomacy sought to maintain the independence of the Portuguese monarchy, especially in relationship to the larger and more powerful Spanish monarchy. During this period, the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, which began with a treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the kings of Portugal and England in 1386 (the Treaty of Windsor) and continued with the Methuen Treaty in 1703, sought to use England ( Great Britain after 1707) as a counterweight to its landward neighbor, Spain.
       As three invasions of Portugal by Napoleon's armies during the first decade of the 19th century proved, however, Spain was not the only threat to Portugal's independence and security. Portugal's ally, Britain, provided a counterweight also to a threatening France on more than one occasion between 1790 and 1830. During the 19th century, Portugal's foreign policy became largely subordinate to that of her oldest ally, Britain, and standard Portuguese histories describe Portugal's situation as that of a "protectorate" of Britain. In two key aspects during this time of international weakness and internal turmoil, Portugal's foreign policy was under great pressure from her ally, world power Britain: responses to European conflicts and to the situation of Portugal's scattered, largely impoverished overseas empire. Portugal's efforts to retain massive, resource-rich Brazil in her empire failed by 1822, when Brazil declared its independence. Britain's policy of favoring greater trade and commerce opportunities in an autonomous Brazil was at odds with Portugal's desperate efforts to hold Brazil.
       Following the loss of Brazil and a renewed interest in empire in tropical Africa, Portugal sought to regain a more independent initiative in her foreign policy and, especially after 1875, overseas imperial questions dominated foreign policy concerns. From this juncture, through the first Republic (1910-26) and during the Estado Novo, a primary purpose of Portuguese foreign policy was to maintain Portuguese India, Macau, and its colonies in Africa: Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. Under the direction of the dictator, Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, further efforts were made to reclaim a measure of independence of foreign policy, despite the tradition of British dominance. Salazar recognized the importance of an Atlantic orientation of the country's foreign policy. As Herbert Pell, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1937-41), observed in a June 1939 report to the U.S. Department of State, Portugal's leaders understood that Portugal must side with "that nation which dominates the Atlantic."
       During the 1930s, greater efforts were made in Lisbon in economic, financial, and foreign policy initiatives to assert a greater measure of flexibility in her dependence on ally Britain. German economic interests made inroads in an economy whose infrastructure in transportation, communication, and commerce had long been dominated by British commerce and investors. Portugal's foreign policy during World War II was challenged as both Allied and Axis powers tested the viability of Portugal's official policy of neutrality, qualified by a customary bow to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as minister of foreign affairs, as well as prime minister, during 1936-45, sought to sell his version of neutrality to both sides in the war and to do so in a way that would benefit Portugal's still weak economy and finance. Portugal's status as a neutral was keenly tested in several cases, including Portugal's agreeing to lease military bases to Britain and the United States in the Azores Islands and in the wolfram (tungsten ore) question. Portugal's foreign policy experienced severe pressures from the Allies in both cases, and Salazar made it clear to his British and American counterparts that Portugal sought to claim the right to make independent choices in policy, despite Portugal's military and economic weakness. In tense diplomatic negotiations with the Allies over Portugal's wolfram exports to Germany as of 1944, Salazar grew disheartened and briefly considered resigning over the wolfram question. Foreign policy pressure on this question diminished quickly on 6 June 1944, as Salazar decreed that wolfram mining, sales, and exports to both sides would cease for the remainder of the war. After the United States joined the Allies in the war and pursued an Atlantic strategy, Portugal discovered that her relationship with the dominant ally in the emerging United Nations was changing and that the U.S. would replace Britain as the key Atlantic ally during succeeding decades. Beginning in 1943-44, and continuing to 1949, when Portugal became, with the United States, a founding member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Luso-American relations assumed center stage in her foreign policy.
       During the Cold War, Portuguese foreign policy was aligned with that of the United States and its allies in Western Europe. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the focus of Portuguese foreign policy shifted away from defending and maintaining the African colonies toward integration with Europe. Since Portugal became a member of the European Economic Community in 1986, and this evolved into the European Union (EU), all Portuguese governments have sought to align Portugal's foreign policy with that of the EU in general and to be more independent of the United States. Since 1986, Portugal's bilateral commercial and diplomatic relations with Britain, France, and Spain have strengthened, especially those with Spain, which are more open and mutually beneficial than at any other time in history.
       Within the EU, Portugal has sought to play a role in the promotion of democracy and human rights, while maintaining its security ties to NATO. Currently, a Portuguese politician, José Manuel Durão Barroso, is president of the Commission of the EU, and Portugal has held the six-month rotating presidency of the EU three times, in 1992, 2000, and 2007.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Foreign policy

См. также в других словарях:

  • Green Hairstreak — Taxobox name = Green Hairstreak image caption = Green Hairstreak ( Callophrys rubi ) regnum = Animalia phylum = Arthropoda classis = Insecta ordo = Lepidoptera familia = Lycaenidae genus = Callophrys species = C. rubi binomial = Callophrys rubi… …   Wikipedia

  • Europe, history of — Introduction       history of European peoples and cultures from prehistoric times to the present. Europe is a more ambiguous term than most geographic expressions. Its etymology is doubtful, as is the physical extent of the area it designates.… …   Universalium

  • Life Sciences — ▪ 2009 Introduction Zoology       In 2008 several zoological studies provided new insights into how species life history traits (such as the timing of reproduction or the length of life of adult individuals) are derived in part as responses to… …   Universalium

  • Christianity — /kris chee an i tee/, n., pl. Christianities. 1. the Christian religion, including the Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox churches. 2. Christian beliefs or practices; Christian quality or character: Christianity mixed with pagan elements; …   Universalium

  • china — /chuy neuh/, n. 1. a translucent ceramic material, biscuit fired at a high temperature, its glaze fired at a low temperature. 2. any porcelain ware. 3. plates, cups, saucers, etc., collectively. 4. figurines made of porcelain or ceramic material …   Universalium

  • China — /chuy neuh/, n. 1. People s Republic of, a country in E Asia. 1,221,591,778; 3,691,502 sq. mi. (9,560,990 sq. km). Cap.: Beijing. 2. Republic of. Also called Nationalist China. a republic consisting mainly of the island of Taiwan off the SE coast …   Universalium

  • arts, East Asian — Introduction       music and visual and performing arts of China, Korea, and Japan. The literatures of these countries are covered in the articles Chinese literature, Korean literature, and Japanese literature.       Some studies of East Asia… …   Universalium

  • KABBALAH — This entry is arranged according to the following outline: introduction general notes terms used for kabbalah the historical development of the kabbalah the early beginnings of mysticism and esotericism apocalyptic esotericism and merkabah… …   Encyclopedia of Judaism

  • international relations — a branch of political science dealing with the relations between nations. [1970 75] * * * Study of the relations of states with each other and with international organizations and certain subnational entities (e.g., bureaucracies and political… …   Universalium

  • United Kingdom — a kingdom in NW Europe, consisting of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: formerly comprising Great Britain and Ireland 1801 1922. 58,610,182; 94,242 sq. mi. (244,100 sq. km). Cap.: London. Abbr.: U.K. Official name, United Kingdom of Great… …   Universalium

  • Judaism — /jooh dee iz euhm, day , deuh /, n. 1. the monotheistic religion of the Jews, having its ethical, ceremonial, and legal foundation in the precepts of the Old Testament and in the teachings and commentaries of the rabbis as found chiefly in the… …   Universalium

Поделиться ссылкой на выделенное

Прямая ссылка:
… Нажмите правой клавишей мыши и выберите «Копировать ссылку»